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The increasing use of portable computing and communication devices and its impact on the health of EU workers |
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KE-30-10-325
The increasing use of portable
-EN-C
computing and communication
devices and its impact on the
health of EU workers
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European Commission
The increasing use of portable
computing and communication
devices and its impact on the
health of EU workers
European Commission
Directorate-General for Employment, Social Affairs and Equal Opportunities
Unit F.4
Manuscript completed in December 2009
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Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 2010
ISBN 978-92-79-15399-0
doi: 10.2767/29806
© European Union, 2010
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Table of Content
Executive summary __________________________________________________________ 5
Introduction _______________________________________________________________ 10
I Methodology_____________________________________________________________ 11
II Overview of the technology and its use________________________________________ 12
Summary _______________________________________________________________ 12
Introduction _____________________________________________________________ 13
1. Definitions ____________________________________________________________ 14
2. Status quo analysis______________________________________________________ 16
2.1 Description of portable computing and communication systems _______________ 16
2.1.1 Types __________________________________________________________ 16
2.1.2 Functionality, characteristics and ergonomic features ____________________ 17
2.2 Description of work with portable systems ________________________________ 19
2.2.1 Types of work using portable systems ________________________________ 19
2.2.2 The work environment of mobile eWorkers ____________________________ 22
2.3 Survey of the use of portable systems among the working population ___________ 26
2.3.1 Extent of, and increase in, use_______________________________________ 26
2.3.2 Categories and numbers of workers affected ___________________________ 31
2.3.3 Typical activities and tasks _________________________________________ 36
2.3.4 Types of work with portable devices and possible OSH risks and OSH
management problems _________________________________________________ 37
2.3.5 How portable systems influence the boundary between work hours and private
time________________________________________________________________ 38
2.3.6 Possible evolution of the technology and future use of portable systems______ 40
2.4 Technological development and nanotechnology ___________________________ 41
2.5 Work of tomorrow – future working patterns ______________________________ 44
2.6 Foreseeable future use of portable systems ________________________________ 45
2.7 Discussion and conclusions ____________________________________________ 47
III Assessment of the OSH risks _______________________________________________ 50
1. Psychosocial risk factors _________________________________________________ 50
Summary _____________________________________________________________ 50
Introduction ___________________________________________________________ 50
Deduction of psychosocial risk factors and resources ___________________________ 52
1.1 Investigation into specific psychosocial resources and risk factors______________ 55
1.1.1 Work organization________________________________________________ 55
1.1.2 Work content ____________________________________________________ 60
1.1.3 Social relations at work____________________________________________ 61
1.1.4 Operational and societal conditions __________________________________ 64
1.1.5 Personal influences _______________________________________________ 64
1.2 Risks of illness and accidents deriving from psychosocial stressors_____________ 65
1.3 Psychosocial implications for the proposed future development in work using
portable computing and communication devices_______________________________ 65
1.4 Demographic effects _________________________________________________ 66
1.5 Expert interviews ____________________________________________________ 67
1.6 Conclusions ________________________________________________________ 68
2. Ergonomic risk factors___________________________________________________ 70
Summary _____________________________________________________________ 70
Introduction ___________________________________________________________ 70
2.1 The effects of biomechanical workload___________________________________ 72
2.2 Effects of the visual interface design _____________________________________ 75
3
2.3 Effects of excessive noise and vibration levels _____________________________ 76
2.4 Effects of cognitive load and multiple task situations ________________________ 76
2.5 Effects of Ageing ____________________________________________________ 78
2.6 Discussion and Conclusions ___________________________________________ 79
IV Implications for the Management of OSH _____________________________________ 80
1. Difficulties in applying “traditional” approaches to OSH management _____________ 80
2. Exclusion from collective agreements due to mobility __________________________ 82
3. Consequences and recommendations for practical OSH management ______________ 83
4. Conclusions ___________________________________________________________ 84
V Implications for regulation and enforcement ___________________________________ 85
Summary _______________________________________________________________ 85
1. Challenges and possible approaches for legislation and enforcement_______________ 85
1.1 OSH Framework Directive 89/391/EEC __________________________________ 86
1.2 Possibly relevant EU regulatory framework _______________________________ 88
1.3 Directive 90/270/EEC (work with display screen equipment) _________________ 88
2. Options for legislation and enforcement _____________________________________ 93
VI Discussion _____________________________________________________________ 95
VII Conclusions____________________________________________________________ 97
Bibliography ______________________________________________________________ 99
Literature _______________________________________________________________ 99
Legislation _____________________________________________________________ 110
List of Photographs ______________________________________________________ 111
List of Figures __________________________________________________________ 112
List of Tables ___________________________________________________________ 113
List of Abbreviations _____________________________________________________ 114
4
Executive summary
Portable computing and communication devices are widely used by workers in different
occupations and their use is steadily increasing.
Working with portable devices and systems differs markedly from the work with visual
display units at workstations which is regulated by the European visual display units (VDU)
Directive1 and governed by a host of guidelines and recommendations within the Member
States of the European Union (EU MS)2.
What are the new and changing risks to the safety and health of the working population from
the steadily growing use of portable systems and devices and their ongoing technical
development?
Which problems can be identified for the employers’ occupational safety and health (OSH)
management and for legislation and implementation in the EU and its Member States? What
scope is there to solve these problems?
Against this background, the main findings of this study are shown below.
The first part of the study gives an overview of the technology and its use, especially of:
· the various types of portable computing and communication systems currently in use
including devices such as personal digital assistants (PDAs), laptop computers, smart
phones, tablet personal computers, etc. (types of systems);
· the types of work that such computing and communication systems are used for (types of
work);
· the extent to which portable systems are used by the working population – exploring how
their prevalence is growing in absolute terms (extent of, increase in, use). The volume of
work and types of tasks that the systems are commonly used for and the extent to which
they are used (e.g. number of emails sent/received, time spent using them); how the
systems permit or encourage work during free time (e.g. after office hours, at weekends
and on holiday);
· the types of workers using portable systems (categories and numbers of workers) and the
number and types of workers affected. While still regarded by many as ‘executive toys’,
these systems are increasingly used by salespersons, technical support workers, delivery
persons, restaurant and maintenance staff, etc.;
· how the technology behind these systems – and especially the hardware and
telecommunications – is developing, and how the technology is likely to evolve in the
future, highlighting the most important emerging technologies and explaining what this
means for future work patterns (evolution of technologies and future use).
1 Council Directive 90/270/EEC on the minimum safety and health requirements for work with display screen
equipment.
2 e.g.: Swedish Work Environment Authority: “Work with Display Screen Equipment”; UK: Statutory Instrument 1992 No.
2792 “The Health and Safety (Display Screen Equipment) Regulations 1992”; Estonia: Regulation No. 362 of the
Government of the Republic of 15 November 2000 “Occupational health and safety requirements for work with display
screen equipment”; Germany: Bildschirmarbeitsverordnung, BGI-650 (Bildschirm- und Büroarbeitsplätze – Leitfaden für die
Gestaltung).
5
The sources of information that have been reviewed and analysed are – survey results, sales
data, manufacturers’ and service providers’ information, published scientific research, market
research, data from national authorities, and expert opinions. The aim is not to give a
statistical overview, but rather to use the reliable data available to describe the situation and
identify trends. However, the available data are for many issues still very limited, because
most of the statistics found relate to consumer products.
Important stressors that were found are, for example, the blurring of boundaries between
work and family life, the extension of the working day, difficulties in supervising mobile
employees at work and the feeling that mobile employees have of being insufficiently
involved in company decisions and having poorer career prospects. These stressors may cause
increased stress and mental fatigue which in turn may have long-term consequences e.g. a
weakening of the immune system, psychosomatic diseases, sleep disorders and cardiovascular
disease.
Measures to decrease mental strain in mobile workers that use portable computing and
communication devices can include the training and preparation of these employees to
organize their mobile work themselves and to identify and prevent stressors that may impair
health. Feedback routines for the evaluation of performance should be agreed and employees
should not be forced to be available at all times. It should also be borne in mind that specific
sectors, e.g. the industrial as opposed to the administrative, may differ significantly regarding
the occurrence of psychosocial risks.
The main ergonomic risks considered are:
· manual handling problems resulting from the inevitable compromise in terms of usability
in the design of portable devices, bearing in mind that they will sometimes be used in cold
conditions or situations encouraging poor posture;
· repetitive movements, especially involving a pinch grip, which may induce repetitive
strain injury;
· poor legibility resulting from small display screens and controls, together with problems
arising from reflective glare or excessively low ambient lighting;
· excessive noise levels resulting from high volume settings to compensate for background
noise;
· static and/or poor posture resulting from using the devices in an unsuitable environment;
· cognitive load resulting in accident risks, e.g. when driving or as a pedestrian crossing the
road.
Using the data found, no reliable assessment of the risk factors mentioned above was possible.
Instead, we have made assumptions about their impact whilst highlighting fields of interest
for further research.
It would seem advisable to distinguish between different occupational categories or groups of
workers. In addition to the differences in work environments for portable systems, these
categories reflect differing degrees of intensity of portable systems use and of ICT
(information and communication technologies) skills in most cases as well. Since the
duration and intensity of portable systems use are crucial factors particularly with
regard to biomechanical workload, it is important to analyse the organization of work as
well. Of course, while variations between different occupational categories may affect the
total amount of biomechanical and cognitive workload, they may also be helpful for
identifying the resources available to enable the user to cope with a certain workload.
6
In addition, it is important to take account of future developments in technology. Since
portable systems designed for communication tasks are smaller and lighter than those
designed for computing tasks, they tend to reduce the biomechanical load and are more
appropriate for mobile work. Likewise, there is evidently a need for the user-centred design
of mobile devices which are compatible with the cognitive load during mobile work.
Future portable systems should facilitate multitasking activities, for instance.
Mobile IT (information technology)-supported work is considered hard to design and regulate
with the aid of conventional occupational safety and health approaches. This is because many
aspects of work which are fixed in traditional work settings become variable within mobile
IT-supported work situations. OSH principles and measures based on such factors are thus no
longer applicable within this new setting. In this way, mobile IT-supported work confronts
corporate OSH management with new challenges. Many of the factors relevant for the OSH
of mobile IT-supported workers are associated with organization and processes. OSH
management must, therefore, adopt an approach which will ensure compliance with the legal
restrictions and OSH regulations. It should encourage a more holistic approach in
cooperation with other organizational management disciplines. This seems to be a key
factor for successfully applying occupational safety and health management in the mobile IT-
supported work sector and thus for the overall health of individuals at work.
To describe the implications for regulation and implementation, we analysed the existing
European legislation against the background of the new requirements from the field.
We present and discuss several options for adapting existing legislation and adopting
alternative solutions for dealing with new and ongoing developments in this field.
The OSH Framework Directive covers all risks, all kinds of work and addresses the
obligations without exempting any employers. The requirements are applicable to all specific
aspects of work with portable devices. In this sense, there are no loopholes in existing OSH
provisions.
Our analysis of the VDU Directive shows that, while it is clearly not applicable in the mobile
environment in a legal sense, it can be used as a guideline for the design of portable devices,
if not for how users work with them.
It is worth noting that the implementation of the VDU Directive in some EU Member States
does not exclude from its application the work with portable devices at workplaces.
Three different approaches to legislation for working with portable systems can be described:
a) a new directive for working with portable systems;
b) extending and updating the VDU Directive to include work with portable systems;
c) no new or updated regulations.
In cases (b) and (c) there would be a need for guidelines for work with portable systems.
Whichever of the options proposed above is chosen, those charged with its implementation
will be faced with the practical problem that it is impossible to effectively monitor work with
portable systems in the field. The labour inspectorates must focus their controls and
7
enforcement on the OSH management of working with portable systems (e.g. selection of
appropriate systems, risk assessment, adapted organization of prevention).
The conclusions drawn from the investigative part of the study are as follows:
1. The occupational use of computing and communications systems is continuing to grow in
terms of:
· the number of users;
· the fields of application and activities;
· new technologies.
2. The following terminology is proposed:
· “mobile IT-supported work”;
· “mobile e-Worker”.
This is because these two aspects combined – mobility and the use of portable IT – are the
characteristic features.
3. Since activities in the various fields of application differ greatly in some respects and the
distinction between blue- and white-collar activities is becoming blurred, categorization on
the basis of the characteristics of the particular activity makes more sense for the
identification of risks and taking preventive measures.
4. The health risks due to poor or maladapted ergonomics and psychosocial stress are varied
and considerable. They vary from acute dangers (accident risk, e.g. from the use of portable
devices when driving) to the latent risks of chronic physical and mental illness. These are the
result not only of the direct use of the devices but also, and more importantly, of the
circumstances in which devices are used. The first standards, recommendations and principles
can already be defined on the basis of the existing findings.
5. There is a lack of representative and specific studies on mobile IT-supported work. These
are necessary so that evidence-based guidelines can be drafted and specific, targeted measures
defined.
6. Employers can and must shoulder their responsibility for the safety and health of their
mobile e-workers even when they work away from their normal base. OSH management
practice must therefore be adapted accordingly. This includes risk assessment, the availability
of suitable equipment and systems, technical and personal support, training employees to use
the systems in a healthy way and a new health protection culture. Employers, and particularly
small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), as well as manufacturers of devices and
providers of IT services, need standards and generally accepted recommendations.
7. The OSH Framework Directive covers all occupational risks including all aspects of mobile
IT-supported work in general. The VDU Directive is not applicable from the legal point of
view, but many of its provisions are applicable in practice to portable devices and particularly
the ergonomic requirements. Serving as the state of the art, these should also form the basis
for possible “standards” for portable devices for occupational use.
8
8. There are three options for future OSH management:
· a new directive;
· modification of the VDU Directive and extension of its scope to cover mobile IT-
supported work;
· no new or modified directive, but the drafting of guidelines and “standards”.
The last option would appear to be the best way of satisfying the needs of OSH in the mobile
IT-supported work sector in the light of the speed of technological progress.
9. The most effective way to achieve compliance is for OSH authorities to concentrate on
indirect monitoring by inspecting the way work is organized in companies. They should
participate in the drafting of generally accepted evidence-based OSH management
“standards” and guidelines and in their dissemination.
10. OSH management for mobile IT-supported work should facilitate a holistic approach in
cooperation with other organisational management disciplines. This is the key factor in
successfully ensuring occupational safety and health in this new field.
9
Introduction
Portable computing and communication devices are widely used by workers from different
occupations and their use is steadily increasing.
The risks associated with working with portable devices and systems, for which at present no
guidelines exist, differ considerably from those associated with working with visual display
units at workstations. The latter are covered by the European VDU Directive and governed by
a host of guidelines and recommendations within the EU Member States.
In the light of the above, the study addresses the following issues:
· To what extent are mobile communication devices used by the working population – how
is such use growing in absolute terms and which types of workers are using them?
· How is the technology behind these devices – hardware and telecommunications –
developing, and how is the technology likely to evolve in the future?
· Description of the possible hazards arising from the use of portable computing and
communication devices and the risks to workers in terms of ill health and accidents. We
also consider how the nature and extent of these risks will change in the future in the light
of likely developments in technology and its use.
· The implications of the use and development of mobile communication and computing
devices for occupational health and safety management and for legislation and
implementation in the context of European law concerning health and safety at work.
· The scope is limited to work carried out in locations and environments that are impossible
or difficult for the employer to control.
10
I Methodology
Because of the limited time scale, the study was designed as an analysis of the literature and
other available information sources such as market research, survey results and data from
national authorities.
One of the findings was that there is a lack of specific research and field studies on the
psychosocial and ergonomic risks of using portable computing and communication devices.
Nonetheless, we were able to find a host of studies whose results could be applied to the
issues covered by this project. In the ergonomics sector in particular, we made use of our own
published research on input devices (keyboards, mouses etc.) for the study.
Nevertheless, it has to be stated that there is a strong need for representative field studies
devoted to the specific health and safety problems and issues arising from the widespread
occupational use of portable computing, communication and information systems. These
should look individually at the various tasks performed or supported by those systems (see
chapter II “Overview of the technology and its use”).
External expert opinions and the views of national authorities were obtained in interviews
with experts from European OSH institutes, universities and trade unions. When searching for
experts we were faced with the problem that there is a lack of experience in this field of study
among OSH experts.
A workshop was held with 14 participants from 3 countries and the European Commission in
the 4th quarter of the project to present and discuss the preliminary results and to draw
conclusions both from the experts’ views and also from the European perspective.
The preliminary results from the different parts of the study (technology and its use,
psychosocial and ergonomic risk factors) were presented and discussed. Work groups looked
more closely at the implications for OSH management, regulation and implementation.
The results of the workshop are reported in the relevant sections and in the final discussion
and conclusions of this report.
11
II Overview of the technology and its use
Summary
This chapter covers:
The various types of portable computing and communication systems currently in use, such as
personal digital assistants (PDAs), laptop computers, smart phones, tablet personal computers
(PCs), etc. (types of systems).
· Types of work that such computing and communication systems are used for (types of
work).
· The extent to which portable systems are used among the working population – exploring
both how their prevalence is growing in absolute terms (extent of, and increase in, use).
The volume of work and types of tasks that the systems are commonly used for and the
extent to which they are used (e.g. number of emails sent/received, time spent using
them); how the systems permit or encourage work during private time (e.g. after office
hours, on weekends and during holidays).
· The types of workers using portable systems (categories and numbers of workers) and the
number and types of workers affected. While still regarded by many as ‘executive toys’,
these systems are increasingly used by sales persons, technical support, delivery,
restaurant and maintenance staff, etc.
· How the technology which enables the use of these systems – especially the hardware and
telecommunications – is developing, and how the technology is likely to evolve in the
future, highlighting the most important emerging technologies and explaining what this
means for future work patterns (evolution of technologies and future use).
The study describes the sources of information that are reviewed and analysed – e.g. survey
results, sales figures, manufacturers’ or service providers’ information, published scientific
research, market research, data from national authorities and expert opinions. The aim is not
to give a statistical overview, but rather to use the reliable data that is available to describe the
situation and identify trends. For many issues the available data is still very limited. Most of
the statistics found relate to consumer products.
This study does not focus on long-term telework, such as working from home or from a
client’s premises, as its scope is limited to work carried out in locations and environments
which are impossible or difficult for the employer to control.
It is increasingly acknowledged that networked work environments, which make extensive
use of ICT for interconnecting workplaces across space and time, often by using portable
systems, play a significant role in economic competitiveness (Gareis 2006). Therefore the
impact on occupational safety and health in Europe of the increasing use of portable systems
is of great interest.
12
Introduction
Physically mobile workers (temporarily) using ICT systems3 with high intensity to support
their multi-locational or mobile work are called mobile eWorkers. In most cases these
mobile eWorkers use portable systems for computing and communication tasks. By “portable
computing and communication devices” (portable systems) [PSs] we understand portable
computer systems designed for deployment on the move, (temporarily) connected to an ICT
network for communication or data transfer tasks.
PSs may be independent systems or embedded systems. This study covers neither embedded
systems nor telecommuting (long-term telework) because in such cases PSs are, or can be,
used as stationary systems and such use does not differ from traditional office work.
With portability and styling as high priorities, ergonomics often takes a back seat in the
design of PSs. Furthermore, the devices are likely to be used in environments which – from a
health and safety perspective – are far from ideal. Locations such as the car, the train, or
standing in the street may be convenient, but they are a far cry from a well-designed office
environment.
The increasing use of PSs means that more people are working outside the office and are
doing so for longer periods. As a consequence, workers experience a blurring of work and
private life as they are expected to be available out of office hours, during weekends, and on
holidays. This blurring is aggravated by the fact that many systems are often also used for
making private arrangements, so that the traditional separation of work and private life is
made even more difficult. These factors have significant psychosocial implications as a result
of the intensification of work and increased pressure, combined with growing isolation.
Use of PSs in an occupational environment by mobile workers can be defined as ICT-
enabled multilocational work (Vartiainen, Matti (5) 2008). Little statistical data exists about
the actual extent and structure of this work and there is only a limited understanding of which
workers are involved in these activities. The database from a recent, representative EU-wide
survey (SIBIS (SIBIS 2003/2003)) can be used to explore in more depth the key
characteristics of mobile eWorkers.
This document gives an overview of portable computing and communication systems
(PSs) and their use by mobile eWorkers and mobile workers using PSs occasionally, the
evolution of technologies in this field, and their foreseeable future use (task 1 of the
study).
3 ICT = information and communication technologies.
13
1. Definitions
The following definitions are not presented in alphabetic order but grouped in related themes
for ease of understanding.
eWork is work using company computer systems. eWork is a synonym for ICT-supported
work.
Mobile eWork (mobile ICT-supported work) is used to describe all kinds of high-intensity
mobile work and work arrangements at the individual level carried out outside the home and
the main office, using ICT for online connections to the Internet and/or to company computer
systems (mobile computer-mediated work) (Andriessen/Vartiainen (eds.) 2006). Such work
takes place while workers are moving or at a certain destination, wherever it suits their work
activities, tasks, business schedule, and/or lifestyle (Vartiainen 2007). Mobile eWork is
related to the possibility of a person moving and executing tasks anywhere and at any time,
with the help of wired and wireless technologies and in a flexible manner
(Andriessen/Vartiainen 2006). Mobile eWork is done in ever changing situations with a need
to collaborate with other workers and to be connected to shared resources in order to achieve
common goals (Corso 2006). Mobile eWork can be classified by degree of physical mobility,
level of routine, type of data exchange, and degree of interaction (Vartiainen (2) Andriessen
2006).
A mobile eWorker is a person who works at least ten hours per week away from home and
from the main place of work and uses online computer connections when doing so (from:
Collaboration@Work, “The 2003 report on new working environments and practices”,
http://europa.eu.int/information_society/topics/ework/information/. This report uses the
traditional term “teleworker”).
Micro-mobility of a worker is in-house and on-site mobility (Vartiainen (4) 2007), perhaps
also including nearby buildings and areas (Andriessen/Vatiainen (eds.) 2006).
Multi-mobility
is
regular
movement
between
many
different
locations
(Andriessen/Vatiainen (eds.) 2006).
Full mobility is constant movement between different sites (Andriessen/Vatiainen (eds.)
2006).
Multi-locational eWork is eWork carried out at a number of different, often fixed, locations,
one of which may be the home (BISER 2004).
An instant office is a workplace instantly created and occupied temporarily by the worker in
a location that is not primarily designed for office work4.
Work-life balance is used to describe the balance between an individual's work and personal
life (family life and leisure)5. The determinants of work-life balance are located both at work
and in the home and in an individual’s personal characteristics (including age, gender, stage
4 Van Meel, J. “The European office – office design and national context”.
5 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Work-life_balance
14
of career, ambition, work involvement, level of energy, capacity for coping with competing
demands).
The specific characteristics of mobile eWork which can impact negatively on those involved
include information overload, short response times, availability, pace of change (Richter
2006), increased access hours, reduced autonomy, less freedom, pressure to work, multi-
tasking, and thinking time viewed as “non-value-added”. On the positive side, meWork can
allow some flexibility to redress the impact of travelling (Shaffers (2) 2006).
A portable system [PS] is a personal, small and lightweight ICT tool (hardware product),
designed to be used “on the go”/“on the move”, and that is temporarily independent of an
external electric power supply.6 7 A PS can be portable, wearable or at least easy to pack up
and move (Wilson 2006). A PS can contribute to making a normally stationary eWork
practice mobile (Johansson 2006). In the context of this study PSs are regarded as
(temporarily) connected to ICT networks for communication or data transfer tasks.
A wearable computer is a ruggedized system subsumed into the personal space of a user, is
always with the user and controlled by the user hands-free, is proactive, always on, always
accessible, often uses sensors for context- or location-awareness, and is connected to an ICT
network8.
6 Often portable systems are called mobile devices; this term is not used in this study because ICT systems typically are not
themselves mobile and the term ‘device’ also is used for technical objects that cannot act alone or independently of other
components.
7 The core toolset of meWorkers consists of a laptop computer and a mobile phone (Nieminen, Mannonen, Petri 2007).
8 Wearable computer definition adapted from Steve Mann's keynote address entitled "WEARABLE COMPUTING as means
for PERSONAL EMPOWERMENT" presented at the 1998 International Conference on Wearable Computing ICWC-98,
Fairfax VA, May 1998, and from the definition given by Rachuy, Carsten and Warden, Tobias in ”Probleme und Chancen
der Benutzerschnittstellen bei Wearable Computern”, University of Bremen, artec-paper Nr. 118, October 2004.
15
2. Status quo analysis
2.1 Description of portable computing and communication systems
2.1.1 Types
In this chapter various types of PSs currently in use, such as personal digital assistants
(PDAs), laptop computers, smart phones, tablet PCs, etc., are described in order to give an
overview of the state of the art in this field. This overview starts with first handheld
computers and ends with newer market products such as the so-called Mobile Internet
Devices or eBook readers.
The descriptions of specific types of PSs are mostly taken from the Internet encyclopaedia
Wikipedia (Wikipedia)9, though a few are from manufacturers’ own websites10.
In an English language environment a distinction is made between mobile devices and
desktop computers11. “Device” in the computing and electronics context may refer to
computer hardware, a peripheral device, device file, information appliance, display device,
electronic component or integrated circuit12. A peripheral device is any device attached to a
computer which expands its functionality. According to these definitions portable computing
and communication “devices” are portable computer systems [PSs].
Typically such PSs do not always act alone when used by mobile eWorkers, because they are
part of a solution that needs a communication network. In situations where PSs are used for
electronic communication or data transfer, they can correctly be named ‘devices’. This study
deals with systems that are designed for computing and communication purposes; but these
are independent portable computers also used for communication tasks, and therefore
(sometimes) connected to a communication network. In order to employ an already well
defined word, in this study we will avoid using the word “device” and instead use the term
“system” (portable computer system). Whenever such systems are not able to operate without
any local or wide-area network, the word “device” will be the correct one.
Many types of PSs have been introduced since the 1990s. These include:
· Personal digital assistant (PDA),
· Enterprise digital assistant (EDA),
· Smartphone,
· Wearable computer,13
· PDT,14
· UMPC,15 16
9 Wikipedia content can be copied, modified, and redistributed so long as the new version grants the same freedoms to others
and acknowledges the authors of the Wikipedia articles used (a direct link back to the article is generally thought to satisfy
the attribution requirement). More information on reuse of Wikipedia material can be found at
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Copyrights#Reusers.27_rights_and_obligations.
10 http://www.microsoft.com/windowsmobile/components/devices/
11 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_web
12 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Device
13 Research is going on in the field of wearable computers, see chapter “Technology Development”.
14 Portable data terminal.
15 Ultra-mobile personal computer.
16 http://www.intel.com/products/mid/downloads/umpc2006.pdf
16
· Calculator,17
· Laptop
· eBook reader,
· MID,18
· etc.
2.1.2 Functionality, characteristics and ergonomic features
The functionality, characteristics and ergonomic aspects of a sample of PSs currently in use
will be described here in order to give an overview of the current situation in this field.
PSs can be classified by the application for which they have been designed, as they are mainly
intended either for communication or for computing tasks. Systems designed for
communication tasks are more miniaturized and lighter than those designed for computing
tasks and therefore are more appropriate for supporting mobile work.
For this reason, all current types of PSs may converge in designs which make use of
computing facilities via Internet or other networks (application service providing (ASP)),
leaving PSs for communication tasks only. Computing tasks would then be run on servers, so
that PSs would only be used for inputting tasks and displaying the results.
The technology seems to be evolving in the direction of unified communication and
information channels that allow communication in multimedia mode (voice, data, text, and
video) together with related services, such as (instant) teleconferencing or asynchronous
communication.
17 A calculator is a system that is not used for communication purposes and therefore is not further described in this study.
18 Mobile Internet device.
17
Figure 1: Characteristics of portable ICT tools
Application service providing via Internet
Unified information
and communication
SmartPHone
channels
Cell Phone
(voice, data, text,
Wearable
video)
Mobile
Internet
device
unication tasks m
om C
Ultra
portable
Portable data
terminal
Subnotebook
Notebook
Enterprise
digital assistant
Personal digital
Laptop
assistant
Ultra low-cost-pc
Calculator
Portable
Computer
Computing tasks
While at first glance some PSs seem adequate for office or permanent use over several hours,
further scrutiny shows that, while their functionality is in principle the same as that of non-
portable systems, their characteristics and ergonomic aspects make them inappropriate for
permanent occupational use.
On the other hand, PSs may not need to meet the provisions of the Directive because they are
designed only for occasional use and may be adapted for longer term use by means of
accessories. For instance, where necessary or advisable, an external display and a separate
keyboard are supported by a standard VGA (Video Graphic Array) connector and USB ports.
Given that PSs are mostly purpose- or custom-built and assuming that only appropriate
systems are used, the impact on occupational safety and health of the increasing use of
PSs can only be fully evaluated with reference to the purpose and user group of specific
systems.
From the point of view of users, all PSs have been designed to be used “on the go”/“on the
move”. For this reason, they have been optimized in terms of size and weight and with regard
to environmental conditions but with little attention being paid to the impact of the design on
occupational safety and health. Moreover, because of their potentially universal application,
sometimes systems designed for mobile use are used in situations and for applications for
which they were not intended.
18
Portable systems have been designed to be portable, and their designs therefore conflict
with some usability and ergonomic criteria. If these criteria are incompatible with
portability, this conflict may prove irresolvable.
The following photograph confirms our personal experience that the miniaturisation of PSs
can have a positive impact on occupational health and safety.
Photograph 1: Person carrying a laptop
Source: Lucy Dunne, Adaptive Information Cluster, University College Dublin, Jane McCann, University of Wales,
Newport,Sirpa Mörsky, HAMK, University of Applied Sciences, Hämeenlinna: “Humans – A Tutorial” (slide show).
The function of PSs is to support computing and communication activities; they are
characterized by their design for mobile users, and from an ergonomic point of view they are
not intended for constant use. Some PSs are designed for outdoor use and therefore can be
used in bad weather or other adverse environmental conditions.
2.2 Description of work with portable systems
2.2.1 Types of work using portable systems
This chapter identifies the types of work in which PSs are deployed.
The following aspects are of relevance for an analysis of the types of work in which PSs are
used:
· The target group of ICT solutions with a PS as end-user tool;
· The character and form of occupational use;
· Typical activities, tasks and jobs supported by PSs (scenarios, descriptions of usage);
· The field and range of application/functions of ICT solutions using PSs as end-user tools;
· Usability;
· The distinction between office work – including management jobs – and other work, such
as factory or maintenance work.
19
The types of work in which PSs are used can be characterized as those in which workers are
doing mobile computing “on the go”/“on the move”. This does not mean that these workers
are travelling. On the contrary, PSs are often used by workers that are only mobile on their
employer’s premises or on campus (micro-mobility). Regardless of occupation and category
of worker (white- or blue-collar worker), PSs are mostly used for information and
communication tasks. This is the function and aim of computer systems and
telecommunication networks. The differences originate from different solutions, applications
and services, and have little to do with the main characteristics of PSs.
From figure 2 we can see that in 2001 non-office workers (manual workers) did not use
computers as much as office workers. Managers had a very high rate of computer use (eWork
2001 and eWork 2002 [2001/2002]). It can be assumed that this category of worker also uses
PSs more often than other workers.
Figure 2: Teleworkers by gender and category of occupation; 2001
as % of computer-users for work by category
as % of total workers in the category
20
16
per 12
ce
nt
8
4
0
Men
Women
Self-employed
Managers
Other white- Manual workers
collar
Source: Eurobarometer, November 2000.
An analysis of the possible fields of occupation, using the typical classification (development,
production, sales, assistance, organizational support, and social services) shows that
production activities (manufacturing, building, installation, etc.) are not ICT activities, while
assistance tasks (operating, controlling, monitoring, etc.) can be supported by ICT. Typical
activities with ICT support are planning, design, programme development, information,
publishing, or promotion (sales), education, entertainment and care (social services).
However, the main field of ICT use is activities and tasks related to organizational support
(organizing, managing, writing, calculating, drawing and communicating). It is important to
understand that regardless of the occupation (profession) or job, typical work using PSs is
characterised by activities that can be, and are, supported by ICT. This will be shown in more
detail in Chapter 2.3.3 “Typical activities and tasks”. Whether people are working, for
example, in customs control, facility services, maintenance services, home care or project
management, most types of mobile work (including micro-mobility) can be supported in some
way by using PSs. Therefore it is difficult to categorize the use of PSs by type of work or by
profession. Generally, much less ICT support is possible in production work than in service
20
work. One group of workers in all sectors that use ICT to a very high degree are the so-called
knowledge workers, who typically use PSs while “on the go”. The following diagram shows
the importance of ICT use by sector. The rates of ICT use are very high in the sectors of
financial intermediation, real estate, public administration and education, which again shows
that ICT is used for information and communication purposes. Those workers whose work
implies a significant use of PC and Internet are classified as “IT” workers (37% of EU
workers).
Figure 3: Use of ICT by sector
IT
IT and machinery
machinery
Agriculture
Construction
Education
Public administration and defence
Real estate
Financial Intermediation
EU27
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
per cent
Source: Excerpt from European survey on working conditions 2007.
There are substantial differences in the use of technologies in the different occupational
groups19. Professionals, clerical workers, technicians and managers use IT most widely, in all
cases above 50%. At the other end of the spectrum are skilled workers and machine operators
(who use machine technologies in more than 60% of cases). Agricultural workers, unskilled
workers and service workers show low levels of use of both types of technology (with more
than 50% of workers not making any substantial use of technology at all).
A deeper analysis of types of work using portable systems requires a large number of different
classifications. The following classification method has been used in the Fourth European
Working Conditions Survey20:
· Gender and age (15 – 29, 30 – 49, 50+);
· Education – primary or lower, lower secondary, upper secondary, post secondary, tertiary,
postgraduate;
· Occupation – senior managers, professionals, technicians, clerical workers, service and
sales workers, agricultural and fishery workers, skilled workers, machine operators,
unskilled workers;
· Sector – agriculture and fishing, manufacturing, electricity/gas/water, construction,
wholesale and retail trade, hotels and restaurants, transport and communication, financial
19 See: European survey on working conditions 2007.
20 European survey on working conditions 2007, Table 5.1
21
intermediation, real estate, public administration and defence, education, health, other
services;
· Technology at work – IT, IT and machinery, machinery, little or no technology.
2.2.2 The work environment of mobile eWorkers
Some aspects of the usual work environment of mobile eWorkers will be presented in this
chapter.
The physical workplace can be described as a combination of:
· Work settings, i.e. furniture + ICT equipment;
· Space, i.e. office, factory, meeting room, project area, café, airplane, forest, car;
· Environment, i.e. office building, city district, street, airport, train, bus, natural
environment, home;
· Conditions, i.e. time, weather, sunlight, temperature and other environmental influences.
Additionally, the work environment can be described as:
· The physical workplace,
· A virtual space (established by ICT)
· A social space (established by other people).
The MOSAIC consortium21 (Shaffers (1) (eds.)), for example, has analysed the dimensions of
place and time in eWork, highlighting the fact that the work environment of mobile eWorkers
is a very complex research subject. Those interested in learning more will find a wealth of
fascinating results from this research on the AMI@Work website22.
PSs are mostly used to support multi-locational or mobile eWork outside the traditional
workplace. The term “multi-locational work” implies that persons spend working time at
more than one location as it suits their work tasks, business schedule and lifestyle (BISHER
2004). The concept of geographically mobile eWork implies that means of production, staff,
objects of work and cooperation partners can be geographically separated from one another.
Furthermore, the organisational and technological changes necessary for relocating eWork
result in new ways of work organisation that in turn make it easier to relocate further work.
The place of work of knowledge workers typically is a hotel, conference site or similar
location, or another company’s premises. The main purposes of mobile eWorkers using online
connections is sending and reading e-mails (92.4%) – less for outgoing than for incoming
communication – but about three quarters also browse the Internet and connect to their
company’s internal computer systems. However, 37% of EU15 mobile eWorkers use mobile
systems for data transfer on the move.23 Potential access points are teleservice centres such as
Internet cafés, which offer mobile eWorkers a temporary workplace equipped with PC,
Internet access, printer, fax etc. Such service providers are emerging at the nodes of
international traffic. They may contribute to making mobile work attractive, offering a
working environment like an office. However, currently only 5.4 % of all mobile eWorkers
make use of teleservice centres. (Gareis 2006)
21 MOSAIC (Mobile Worker Support Environments) is a specific campaign, funded by the European Commission under the
IST 6th Framework Programme; its key objective is to accelerate innovation in mobile worker support environments by
shaping future research and innovation activities in Europe, see http://www.ami-communities.eu/wiki/MOSAIC.
22 http://www.ami-communities.eu/wiki/communities
23 Base: All persons employed (N=5,100); weighted by EU15 population. Data source: SIBIS2002, GPS.
22
Figure 4: Locations where mobile eWorkers use Internet while travelling
Location used by the 4% of mobile eWorkers, who use computer
connections when travelling (multiple response)
100
80
per cent 60
40
20
0
Hotel, conference
Another
Internet cafe or
On the move
site or similar
company's
commercial
using mobile
location
premises
teleservice centre device for data
transfer
Source: Gareis, 2006.
The Fourth European Working Conditions Survey (European Survey on Working Conditions
2007) classifies workers by a single composite indicator of the usual place of work according
to their answers in one of the following eight categories (see table 1).
Table 1: Usual place of work
Place of work
Percentage of EU workers
(%)
In company
50
On company premises and outside
12
Only outside
10
Outside and from home
2
Only from home
2
At company and from home
6
A significant amount of time in all locations
5
Other
13
Source: European survey on working conditions 2007.
From table 2 we can see that about 7% of those accessing the Internet use a laptop to do so.
About 8% use a mobile phone for Internet access, and about 1% a handheld/pocket PC
(EU15, Eurobarometer, November 2002). The statistics for consumer products indicate an
upward trend here. It can be assumed that most of this usage is taking place during working
time, because laptops and pocket PCs are typical tools for mobile eWorkers. Internet access
via mobile phone will also mostly be used for work purposes, because Internet access for
23
private reasons is cheaper and much more convenient from a home landline. From these
figures, together with statistics about how many people access the Internet, it can be estimated
how many mobile eWorkers are accessing the Internet with PSs.
Table 2: Place of use of Internet and mobile access
EU-
BE DK DE EL ES FR IE IT LU NL AT PT FL SE UK
15
Proportion of persons using Internet (%)
At home
71
71
83
72
50 61 64 74 68 84 87 77 64 74 84 74
At work
43
47
50
37
26 36 44 42 40 44 50 44 42 50 57 51
At a friend’s or
33
33
15
40
21 21 40 30 20 27 32 17 20 22 26 41
relative’s home
At school,
19
25
15
17
24 21 20 23 15 17 18 13 24 23 19 24
college,
university
From a public
13
14
8
11
4
10 15 19 7
9
14 4
12 17 12 18
access point
At an Internet
9
6
3
11
20 16 6
14 5
8
9
4
4
4
5
9
cafe
With a mobile
8
6
1
14
1
2
5
7
2
7
7
2
4
3
6
11
phone
With a laptop
7
9
2
6
2
2
10 10 4
8
6
4
4
4
10 14
With a handheld 1
1
0
1
0
0
1
2
0
1
1
1
0
0
2
3
/pocket PC
Elsewhere
0
0
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
Source: Flash Eurobarometer 135, November 2002; Information society statistics, Data 1997 – 2002, THEME 4: Industry,
trade and service, 2003 edition (Information Society Statistics Pocketbook 2003), European Communities, Office for Official
Publications of the European Communities, Luxembourg.
From the following tables – the latest Eurostat statistics on Internet use – we can see the
individual Internet use by country. For this study the table showing the percentage of
individuals who accessed the Internet at places other than work or home is of most interest.
Table 3: Percentage of individuals who accessed the Internet at their place of work
(other than home) in the last 3 months
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
EU27
:
:
18
21
22
25
EU25
:
:
19
21
23
26
EU15
17
19
21
23
24
27
Euro area
14
16
17
20
22
26
Belgium
:
:
:
18
21
23
Bulgaria
:
:
6
:
10
12
Czech
:
13
14
14
20
21
Republic
Denmark
32
35
41
37
46
43
Germany
17
16
18
20
27
30
Estonia
:
:
20
20
28
27
Ireland
:
13
15
17
23
22
Greece
6
7
9
10
12
15
Spain
9
16
18
20
22
23
France
:
:
:
.
18
25
Italy
14
14
15
16
17
18
Cyprus
:
:
14
14
17
20
Latvia
:
:
17
18
22
22
Lithuania
:
10
12
15
17
19
24
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
Luxembourg 21
26
27
26
32
34
Hungary
:
:
10
17
19
21
Malta
:
:
:
16
14
18
Netherlands :
30
:
36
39
43
Austria
21
19
24
25
29
32
Poland
:
:
9
11
13
14
Portugal
9
13
15
15
16
17
Romania
:
:
4
:
7
8
Slovenia
:
:
20
23
28
28
Slovakia
:
:
26
27
26
29
Finland
31
35
37
38
39
39
Sweden
37
36
37
40
38
42
United
26
27
29
31
30
32
Kingdom
Macedonia,
:
:
5
:
4
:
the former
Yugoslav
Republic of
Turkey
:
:
5
6
:
:
Iceland
:
38
41
47
49
56
Norway
:
40
41
47
47
48
Source: Eurostat, 2008.
Figure 5: Individuals who accessed the Internet at their place of work (other than home)
in EU27, EU25, EU15, Euro area
Individuals who accessed the Internet at their
place of work (other than home)
30
28
26
24
t
EU27
EU25
22
er cen
EU15
p 20
Euro area
18
16
14
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
Source: Eurostat, 2008.
The work environment of mobile eWorkers is primarily – but not solely – described by the
place of work. For the purposes of this study secondary and tertiary workplaces are of some
interest. Examples are telework/business office, guest office, and home (if not the main
workplace), which are regularly work places, and instant offices in a hotel, café, Internet café
or outdoors and moving workplaces in public transport vehicles, etc.
25
Besides the place of work, the work environment of mobile eWorkers can be influenced by
the time of work (especially in a leisure time environment) and by environmental conditions
such as temperature and weather, especially in the case of outdoor work.
Instant offices can be furnished with portable items such as special bags with a hard cover (of
reinforced plastic) to place a laptop on or suitcases with a fold-out tray, table or desk. A
portable laptop table, for example, consists of a table top and adjustable leg.
Photograph 2: A portable laptop table
The physical workplace of mobile eWorkers can be described as a combination of:
· Deficient work settings, i.e. missing furniture + PSs designed for short term use;
· Spaces such as vacant offices, meeting rooms, cafés, airplanes, cars, public transport
vehicles, outdoors;
· Environments such as streets, airports, natural environments, family home;
· Detrimental conditions such as work in free time, bad weather, too much sunlight, low or
high temperatures and other less than favourable environmental influences;
· ICT support different from that at a permanent work place;
· Lack of informal social contacts with colleagues and face-to-face meetings.
It is apparent that the work environment of mobile eWorkers is much worse than that of
stationary workers, both in terms of “real” and “virtual” work settings, space and
environmental conditions and in terms of mental/social space requirements. Furthermore, in
the majority of cases this working environment changes during a work day and cannot be
controlled by the employer.
2.3 Survey of the use of portable systems among the working population
2.3.1 Extent of, and increase in, use
Mobile eWork can be defined as high-intensity mobile work in the course of which an online
connection to the Internet and/or to company computer systems is used.
26
According to the data from SIBIS (SIBIS 2002/2003), 28% of EU15 workers spent some paid
working time doing mobile work in 2002. The number of high intensity mobile workers24 was
roughly half of this (15%), and 4% of the EU15 work force in 2002 were meWorkers (Gareis
2006).
67% of these mobile workers spent more than 7 hours per day (unweighted average) on the
move, while 38% were on the move for more than 17 hours. It seems obvious that for this
group of workers PSs are of high importance, as PSs give them the opportunity to do eWork
during travel time and to be reachable by their colleagues and/or customers.
Figure 6: Time spent on the move by mobile workers25 26
2 hours and less
15%
17 hours and more
38%
3-6 hours
18%
7-16 hours
29%
Source: SIBIS General Population Survey, 2002.
As we can find from the Fourth European Working Conditions Survey (European Survey of
Working Conditions 2007), a considerable proportion of people (almost 30%) never or almost
never work at company’s premises. Around 15% works always or almost always outside their
home or company’s premises. Twice as many do so at least a quarter of the time.
The percentage of mobile eWorkers among the total EU15 workforce grew from 1.5% to 4%
in the course of only three years (1999-2002) (Gareis 2006) with a trend towards further
growth (the share in Finland had already reached 6.2%). There is much evidence that mobile
eWork will continue to increase. According to the Working Life Barometer 2002 (Ministry of
Labour, Finland) almost 40% of wage and salary earners carried out work tasks in their
leisure time by means of a connection to their employer via mobile phone or ICT network
(Gareis 2006).
Figure 7 shows that about 38% of EU15 workers are tele-cooperating and about 12% are
doing multi-locational eWork27:
24 High-intensity mobile workers are those who do so for 10 hours or more per week.
25 Unweighted average for EU15, CH and USA. Base: All mobile workers (n = 1277). (Gareis 2006). The number of hours
has been rounded to whole numbers.
26 For instance in 2002 15.4 % of EU15 workers were high intensity mobile workers and about 6 % of all workers average 17
hours and more on the move. Base: All persons employed (N=5,901), weighted; averages weighted by EU15/NAS10
population. Source: SIBIS 2002/2003, GPS.
27 Source: New Global 2007.
27
Figure 7: Multilocational eWork and Tele-cooperation (EU15)
Multilocational eWork and Tele-cooperation
Tele-cooperation
Multilocational eWork
60
50
40
tn
30
r ceep
20
10
0
DK
FI
US
SE
UK
CH
DE
NL
LU
BE
IE
AT
IT
FR
ES
EL
PT
EU
Source: Gareis, 2006, based on data from SIBIS 2002/2003, see Empirica 2002 in New Global 2007.
The next table (table 4) shows that 35% of all employees in companies using ICT (in EU10
countries) have remote access to their company’s computer network.
Table 4: Internet access and access to company’s computer networks in Europe (EU10)
Companies with Companies with Share of
Remote access
Internet access
broadband
employees with
to company’s
Internet access
Internet access* network
Weighting scheme
% of
% of
% of
% of
% of
% of
% of
% of
empl.
firms
empl.
firms
empl.
firms
empl.
firms
Total(EU10)
95
93
76
69
n.a.
43
35
16
By firm size
Micro (1-9 empl)
89
62
n.a.
51
12
Small (10-49 empl.)
98
75
n.a.
29
22
Medium (50-249 empl.)
99
83
n.a.
33
43
Large (250+ empl.)
99
84
n.a.
44
60
By sector
Food & beverages
95
88
72
64
n.a.
25
35
14
Footwear
96
89
75
62
n.a.
28
17
10
Pulp & paper
99
94
80
68
n.a.
40
56
21
ICT manufacturing
100
99
84
79
n.a.
74
69
35
Consumer electronics
98
97
87
74
n.a.
80
51
32
Shipbuilding & repair
100
100
87
86
n.a.
30
41
27
Construction
95
90
72
64
n.a.
47
25
13
Tourism
93
90
72
68
n.a.
53
38
13
Telecommunication
100
99
88
85
n.a.
90
74
46
Hospital activities
100
98
85
78
n.a.
41
39
34
*Read: “In the companies surveyed, on average, 43% of employees have access to the Internet at their workplace”
Source: eBuisness Watch, 2007.
It is interesting to see that the high rate of mobile eWorkers and persons tele-cooperating in
Finland is at least partly the result of direct and indirect support by the government and its
28
ministries (eWork 2001 and eWork 2002, 2001/2002, p. 70). The next diagram (figure 8)
shows the rates of different types of eWork in Finland in 1999 (in % of all enterprises).
Figure 8: Enterprises practising different types of eWork in Finland
60
48.16
45
28.2
per cent
25.93
22.4
30
15
0
Home-based
Self-employed
Mobile eWork
Any kind of
eWork
eWork
regular eWork
Source: ECaTT study from 2000 (Ten Countries in Comparison, Bonn, 2000-06-08), eWork 2002 and eWork 2003, p. 69
(ECaTT 2000).
It is much more common to find the new technologies supporting mobile eWork (multi-
locational teleworking) – approximately one European employer in ten – than teleworking
based solely at home. Furthermore, we can see from the next chart that employers are already
making significant use of ICT to carry out work remotely (eWork 2001 and eWork 2002,
2001/2002, p.27).
29
Figure 9: eWork in Europe by type of eWork (in %)
Any eWork
49
Any eEmployees
11.8
Employees working in remote back offices
6.8
Multi-locational teleworking employees
9.9
Home-based teleworking employees
1.4
Remote call centre in company-owned back office
1.4
(outside own region)
Employees working in telecentres, telecottages or
0.9
other office premises owned by third parties
Cal centre employees in telecottage or telecentre 0.3
Any eOutsourcing (outsourcing using a
43
telecommunications link to deliver work)
eLancers (freelancers using telecommunicatons link to
11.4
deliver work)
eOutsourcing within own region
34.5
eOutsourcing to other region in own country
18.3
eOutsourcing to companies in other countries
5.3
Outsourced call centre
15
Outsourced call centre with telecommunications links
11.1
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
per cent
Source: EMERGENCE European Employer Survey, 2000 (IES/NOP) Weighted figures; % of establishments with >50
employees in EU15 plus Hungary, Poland and Czech Republic. Weighted base: 7305 cases.
The use of PSs very much depends on the quality of ICT support for mobile workers in terms
of usefulness and usability. It can therefore be assumed that the numbers of mobile eWorkers
will increase in line with the rapid increase in the number of people using a PS occasionally
for their work. Taking into account the micro-mobility of workers, it can even be expected
that in future nearly every worker will use a PS for his/her occupation, albeit not in all cases
with high intensity.28
Under some circumstances, time and place of work no longer seem to be relevant and the
boundaries between working time and leisure time seem to be disappearing. Once workers use
PSs, they choose different working locations, such as other locations belonging to their
28 Mobile eWorkers are those mobile workers using ICT/PSs with high intensity.
30
employer, clients’ premises, hotels and meeting venues, teleservice centres and temporary
locations while on the move. The possibility of communicating and interacting with
colleagues and customers by means of PSs will lead to the habitual use of such systems by
every worker, as can be predicted from the current use of mobile phones.
2.3.2 Categories and numbers of workers affected
While still regarded by many as “executive toys”, PSs are increasingly used by sales persons,
technical support, delivery, restaurant and maintenance staff, etc.29
As indicated by the increase in the numbers of mobile eWorkers, the relationship between
physical mobility and ICT support for work, namely in the form of environments for mobile
eWork, is a strong one. By avoiding disconnection from communication and information
networks ICT support allows closer contact with customers and value chain partners. It also
allows more efficient use of otherwise unproductive time, especially during travel. Therefore
mobile eWork can be expected to keep growing rapidly over the coming years (Gareis 2006).
The indicator SIBIS (SIBIS 2002/2003) shows that 66% of EU15 workers are interested in
some type of telework, while in Denmark, for example, the figure is 79%.
The BISER (BISER 2004) statistics from 2003 (table 5) focus on the European regions and
show for the BISER region30 of “Central Macedonia” a share of 0.5% mobile eWorkers
(compared with 55% for mobile phone users, 25% for computer users and 12% for Internet
users). By contrast, the “Berkshire, Buckinghamshire, Oxfordshire” region was reported as
having 13.3% mobile “teleworkers” (mobile eWorkers) – and additionally 18.5% teleworking
at home – compared with 80% mobile phone users, 78% computer users, 72% Internet users).
The average of mobile eWorkers over all BISER regions in 2003 was 4.7%, a number which
is comparable with the 2002 EU15 rate of 4% (SIBIS).
Mobile work can cause a number of problems related to an interrupted communication flow
between mobile workers and their colleagues, superiors and customers. Because ICT supports
mobile workers, it also makes it possible to increase mobile work, and ICT plays a powerful
role as a driver of physically mobile work (Gareis 2006). The BISER data indicates that there
is indeed a trend – made possible by ICT – towards the use of multiple locations for working:
most persons who spend time eWorking at one “atypical” working location do so at other
types of working location as well. It seems that once workers are equipped with a PS and
remote access, they are willing (or asked) to work wherever it suits their tasks, demands or
personal preferences (BISER 2004).
Regarding the proportion of weekly working time spent at mobile working locations, there is
a wide spectrum: some mobile eWorkers spend almost their complete working time at mobile
locations, others only a few hours per week (BISER 2004). As BISER data shows, it can be
assumed that the percentage of mobile eWorkers decreases with increasing distance from
economic centres and communication nodes, so the picture is not an equally clear one in all
BISER regions (BISER 2004).
The BISER project found a core-periphery pattern of diffusion of phenomena such as multi-
locational work and tele-cooperation and of employment in ICT-producing and utilising
29 63% of companies in the region of Stuttgart, Germany, supply their employees with a mobile phone; source:
http://www.livinglabs-europe.com/
30 The BISER study defines specific regions for the analysis.
31
sectors and occupations. This general pattern is influenced, however, by a significant north-
south divide. The diffusion of mobile eWork (and tele-cooperation) appears to be determined
less by national factors than by centrality of location within each Member State, and overall
levels of regional income as measured by GDP (gross domestic product) per capita. This is
especially true for tele-cooperation (BISER 2004).
Table 5: Spread of multi-locational work and tele-cooperation in BISER regions
Region
Multi-locational work
Tele-cooperation
Teleworking at
Mobile
Any
home
teleworking
Brittany, FR
0.9
1.7
2.6
29.1
Castile-Leon, ES
2.5
1.3
3.0
17.7
Central Macedonia,
3.0
0.5
3.5
2.4
MK
Ile-de-France, FR
3.3
3.5
6.3
47.2
Languedoc-
3.4
3.4
5.6
26.8
Roussillon, FR
Catalonia, ES
4.5.
2.9
6.2
26.2
Nord/Pas-de-Calais,
4.5
4.0
7.6
34.4
FR
Tuscany, IT
4.6
1.4
6.1
30.5
Sicily, IT
5.2
1.4
5.9
21.5
Lazio, IT
6.2
7.3
10.7
27.1
Lombardy, IT
6.5
5.7
11.0
38.7
Liege, BE
6.7
4.1
9.2
34.7
Lisboa e Vale do
7.0
5.9
11.2
37.9
Tejo, PT
Tees Valley and
8.2
4.6
11.0
38.7
Durham, GB
Friesland, DE
8.6
4.7
11.1
38.9
Salzburg, AT
8.7
1.7
9.3
52.3
Mecklenburg-West
8.9
4.9
11.3
41.5
Pomerania, DE
Border, Midlands and 9.1
3.1
11.7
31.2
Western, IE
Central Finland, FI
9.7
5.3
13.4
40.3
Magdeburg, DE
9.8
2.6
10.8
38.4
Braunschweig, DE
10.0
3.9
13.4
46.1
Greater Manchester,
11.7
8.2
16.0
43.4
GB
Leicestershire,
12.0
7.4
15.7
53.5
Rutland, Northants.
GB
Stuttgart, DE
12.0
7.4
15.7
53.5
Fyn, DK
12.8
4.1
14.2
43.8
Smaland and Islands, 14.3
8.7
18.8
48.6
SE
Berk-, Buckingham-, 18.5
13.3
26.7
61.1
Oxfordshire, GB
Darmstadt, DE
20.5
4.9
22.7
55.6
AVERAGE
8.7
4.7
11.6
38.9
Source: BISER RPS 2003, weighted.
A precondition for the use of PSs for computing and communication activities for
professional purposes is the connection of such systems to a communication network, either
the Internet, an extranet or a company’s computer network. For this reason, statistical data
32
about the possibility of remote access to company computers is of some interest. For example,
the Eurostat E-commerce (electronic commerce) database (Data 2001-2002) shows that in
Austria in 2001 85% of enterprises were already using the Internet. Only 4% answered that
they either were not planning to use the Internet or did not yet know, while from 7% answers
were not available. The survey covered the business activities manufacturing, distribution,
hotels & accommodation, transport & communication, auxiliary financial services and
business services, with the use of Internet differing very little between the categories. In the
field of financial activities the use of ICT is traditionally high, while small companies do not
use the Internet as much as large ones.
Among enterprises with a web presence by far the most common services provided were the
marketing of products (81% of enterprises with a web presence) and facilitating access to
catalogues and price lists (44%). Among other Internet services, the use of the web to deliver
digital products was particularly important in business services, and this sector and the
transport and communications sector were the most likely to provide mobile Internet services
(8% of enterprises with a web presence).31 Among the EU15 5% of all enterprises provide
mobile Internet services, which is again an indicator of occupational Internet use.
Bearing in mind the increase in Internet and computer use since 2002, it seems reasonable to
assume that by now about 25% or even more of the population in the above-mentioned
countries is equipped with PSs that allow access to the Internet. We can assume that this
number is increasing rapidly and across all countries because most mobile phones now
produced and sold are Internet-enabled. However, the number of Internet-enabled phones is
not a reliable measure of the number of people actually using this function. With regard to the
occupational use of PSs these numbers again are only useful as indicators of the increase in
use.
Table 6: Access to Internet through selected devices, 2002 (%)
DK DE EL ES(1) IT
LU AT PT FI
SE (2) UK
Proportion of households with access to Internet (3)
Have access to Internet
56
43
12
17
27
40
31 16
44
:
50
Have no access to Internet 44
57
87
83
71
60
65 84
56
:
50
Households with access to Internet: proportion with access through selected devices (multiple
answers possible) (3)
Desktop computer
95
92
96
95
:
91
92 90
84
91
85
Portable computer
15
14
6
8
:
19
16 10
17
19
18
Handheld computer
2
1
0
0
:
5
2
:
:
2
:
Television (digital
0
1
0
0
:
1
3
:
:
5
8
television or set top box)
Mobile phone used alone
6
8
6
1
:
15
13
9
16
8
10
(WAP, GPRS)
Games console
0
1
0
:
:
4
4
:
:
5
:
Other device
0
1
0
0
:
0
1
:
:
5
:
(1) Other device includes games console.
(2) Mobile phone used alone includes also mobile phone used with a portable computer.
(3) Proportion of do not know / no answer is not shown.
Source: Information society statistics, Data 1996 – 2002, THEME 4: Industry, trade and service, 2003 edition, European
Communities, Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, Luxembourg.
31 E-commerce and the Internet in European businesses, Data 2001 – 2002, European Communities, 2003, Office for Official
Publications of the European Communities, Luxembourg.
33
In 2006 21% of EU27 enterprises had employees working for part of their time off the
enterprise premises but with access to the enterprise's IT systems. The next table does not
answer the question of categories and numbers of involved workers; however, the increasing
number of employers providing access to their IT-system from remote locations is again an
indicator of the growing importance of the occupational use of PSs, especially the rate of 11%
of enterprises whose IT systems are used during business travel.
Figure 10: Enterprises providing access to their IT systems for employees working part
time away from enterprise premises
EU 27 enterprises providing access to their IT systems
for employees working part time away from enterprise
premises
25
away from workplace
23
21
19
during business travel,
t 17
from hotel, airport etc.
15
er cen 13
p
from customers or
11
other business
9
partners' premises
7
from other locations of
5
the same enterprise or
2004
2005
2006
group
Notes: All enterprises with 10 employed persons or more, excluding the financial sector.
Source: Eurostat, 2008.
Figure 11 shows the proportion of employees accessing their enterprise’s IT systems while
away from their enterprise premises. Many of them will probably use PSs for this purpose. It
seems illogical for about half of all employed persons to be working part of their time away
from their enterprise premises and then access the relevant IT systems on their return. In
combination with the above diagram the author interprets these statistics as follows: In 2006
21% of all EU27 enterprises had employees working part of their time away from company’s
premises who accessed the enterprise's IT systems. 47% of all employees working in such
enterprises belonged to this category of workers. As a result, if the author is correct, about
10% of all employed persons in the EU27 work part of their time away from their company’s
or organisation’s premises but retain access to their enterprise’s IT systems while doing so.
34
Figure 11: Employees working part of their time away from their enterprise premises
and accessing the enterprise IT systems (EU27)
Employees accessing their enterprise's IT systems while
working away from the office
60
55
50
44
47
t 45
40
35
er cenp 35
30
25
20
2004
2005
2006
Notes: All enterprises with 10 employed persons or more, excluding the financial sector.
Source: Eurostat, 2008.
Trying to categorize mobile eWorkers and going into more detail by using case studies or
scenarios would highlight the particular characteristics of such sectors as engineering,
manufacturing or healthcare.
The engineering sector is knowledge-intensive and needs access to global competencies and
information. It involves complex processes and products and widely dispersed stakeholders,
and requires a multi-functional perspective.
The manufacturing sector constantly needs to improve productivity and quality, and requires
the development of production processes.
The healthcare sector is knowledge-intensive, involves team work, widely dispersed
stakeholders and complex processes, and constantly needs to improve productivity, service
and quality, and to guarantee continuity of care.
Analysing the use of ICT and PSs in the above-mentioned sectors, no distinction could be
found from a generic point of view that could help to define categories of affected workers for
the purposes of this study.
One challenge from the perspective of mobile eWorkers is to explore how portable
technology can be used to empower workers (individuals and teams) to build innovative work
environments.
PSs can support access to data (information, knowledge) and facilitate collaboration. In the
future, most workers in developed economies will need access to data and support through
collaboration. With an increasing need for flexibility and mobility, the number of mobile
eWorkers (and the use of PSs) will increase further.
35
For studying the impact on occupational health and safety, types of work, categories of
workers, and types of PSs are of less importance than the work environment of mobile
eWorkers.
2.3.3 Typical activities and tasks
Office workers and knowledge workers mostly use PSs for asynchronous e-mail
communication and provision of data (information) or the use of their company’s software
applications. Knowledge workers live in a “virtual environment” using collaboration tools.
Non-office workers in sectors such as field maintenance and healthcare are mainly connected
to their company’s computer systems using special applications.32 SIBIS (SIBIS 2002/2003)
data from 2002 shows that 92.4% of meWorkers communicate via asynchronous e-mails and
about 70% use the Internet, an extranet33 or the company’s applications. Besides e-mails the
typical office applications, such as address book and calendar, are of major importance for all
mobile eWorkers. Thus – back in the main office or at home – synchronisation of related data
(and of e-mails with an e-mail management and archiving application) is an important ICT-
related task. Synchronisation also guarantees a back-up of such data. Data from SIBIS shows
that activities are also being carried out on the move and not only in instant offices: 37% used
PSs for data transfer in such a situation.
Figure 12. Activities of mobile eWorkers in 2002
Purpose cited by the 4% of mobile eWorkers who use
computer connections when travelling (multiple response)
100
80
per cent
60
40
20
0
Accessing the
Sending or reading e- Connecting to their
Internet
mails
company's internal
computer system
Notes: Base: All persons employed (N=5,100); weighted by EU15 population.
Source: SIBIS 2002, GPS.
As figure 12 shows, after telephone conversations receiving (and sending) emails is the most
relevant activity for which PSs are used. E-mail is used less for outgoing34 than for incoming
communication, and it is much less frequently used for managing urgent situations than the
32 The European Commission’s status report “eWork 2001” eWork 2001 and eWork 2002, 2001/2002 used the categories
self-employed, managers, other white collars and manual workers.
33 In 2007 16 % of all EU27 enterprises used extranets (Eurostat, all enterprises, excluding the financial sector (10 employees
or more)).
34 For convenience.
36
mobile phone35. Furthermore, e-mail was mostly used by those survey participants who stayed
overnight away from home; the typical scenario was to check e-mails at a hotel (Gareis 2006).
Women are much less likely to be mobile eWorkers than men. 71% of all multi-locational
workers are male. Together with the results of earlier empirical research, this result indicates
that the increase in work-related (geographical) mobility which has been made possible by
ICT affects male more than female members of the workforce. Based on BISER we can
conclude that men enjoy more ICT-enabled geographical flexibility than women (BISER
2004).
Mobile non-office workers are often not mobile eWorkers, because they do not use ICT very
intensively. Their use of PSs tends to be more occasional.
When trying to categorize typical activities and tasks a distinction can and should be made
between mobile white-collar workers – who mainly use PSs as a tool for management and
office tasks – and other workers – who mainly use PSs for their work schedule and for
background information.
Typical activities and tasks using PSs can be described using the categories mobile blue-collar
workers and other workers. White-collar workers are often mobile eWorkers (high-intensity
ICT users) while blue-collar workers tend to use PSs only occasionally. PSs are ICT tools
used for ICT-related activities regardless of the sector of use; therefore the work
environment of mobile workers, which differs very much between office workers and
others, is of greater importance for occupational health and safety.
2.3.4 Types of work with portable devices and possible OSH risks and OSH management
problems
Car manufacturers, telecommunications companies, utilities, security forces, international
peace-keeping organisations, hospitals, power suppliers, etc. – all these categories of
companies and organisations use PSs. From the point of view of possible OSH risks and OSH
management problems three different types of work with portable devices can be identified:
· mobile office work, for which changing working environments and longer periods of
concentrated work are typical;
· working with portable devices in the technical support and logistics sectors, for which
changing working environments and unfavourable working posture are typical;
· visual display units in vehicles, for which concurrent demands from driving and
communication are typical.
35 Found by an empirical study of a group of meWorkers. O’Hara K, Perry M, Sellen A, Brown B (2002). “Exploring the
Relationship between Mobile Phone and Document Activity during Business Travel”.
37
Table 7: Examples of types of work with portable devices and the related typical OSH
risks and OSH management problems
Types of work with portable
Typical OSH risks
Typical OSH management
devices (examples)
problems
Mobile office work
§ Longer periods of
§ Limited control by the
§ Business work
work at non-
employer
§ Health care in hospitals
ergonomic work
§ Changing working
§ Insurance agents
environments
environment
§ Door-to-door retailing
§ Stress
§ How to conduct risk
§ Insufficient integration
assessment?
into organisational
flow of information
Working with portable devices in
§ Ergonomic risks
§ Changing working
the technical support and
§ Stress
environment
logistics sectors
§ Eyesight risks
§ Unfavourable working
§ Engine field service
§ Accident risks at
posture
and diagnostics
dangerous
§ Limited control by the
§ Electrical appliance
workplaces
employer
installation and
§ How to conduct risk
maintenance
assessment?
§ Telecommunication
network services and
maintenance
§ Gas and power suppliers
§ Aircraft services and
maintenance
Visual display units in vehicles
§ Accident risks
§ Limited control of the
§ Pilots
through distraction
employees’ behaviour
§ Airport ground
§ Stress through
by the employer
operations
communication while
§ Ambulance services
driving
and emergency care
§ Public transport
2.3.5 How portable systems influence the boundary between work hours and private time
A new question, introduced in 2005 into the European survey on working conditions, assesses
the extent to which work impinges on non-working life. It asks workers whether they are
contactable in connection with their main paid job outside normal working hours. The growth
of faster communication technologies (phone lines, mobile phones and broadband Internet/e-
mail) over the past five years has made such contact possible for the majority of Europeans.
For certain categories of workers, or rather for those with particular roles – e.g. supervisory
responsibilities, or the self-employed – this can blur the boundaries between work and non-
work. The same communication technologies that make contact possible may also make
further work possible, effectively extending working hours. In essence, this can be seen as a
form of negative “flexibility”. It is notable that managers (those with staff working under their
supervision) report this type of contact more than do other workers, and that men, in general,
appear to be more affected than women (European survey on working conditions 2007).
About 18% of workers have out-of-hours contact every day or a least once a week, extending
their working time to more than 45 hours a week. It seems obvious that mobile eWorkers and
mobile workers will have an even higher rate.
38
Figure 13: Extent of out-of-hours contact by length of average working week, EU27 (%)
every day
at least once a week
a couple of times a month less often
never
100%
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%
fewer than 10
10-30
31-35
36-40
41-45
more than 45
hours per
hours per
week
week
Source: European survey on working conditions 2007.
About 28% of men with supervisory responsibilities have out-of-hours contact every day or at
least once a week. The lower rate for women probably results from the smaller number of
women in roles with supervisory responsibilities.
ICT tools to support knowledge management in global process distribution and global
networked organisations are tools that set up a “virtual world” with workers in different time
zones. It is immediately apparent that knowledge workers in global teams cannot work with
their colleagues only asynchronously (by using e-mail or collaboration tools). There is also a
need for synchronous communication and data exchange. This will lead to a situation where
traditional working time patterns are much less important than they are today. Together with
the irrelevance of the place of work for many collaborative activities (especially for some
mobile workers), we can see a development towards working in a “virtual world” irrespective
of time and workplace. This development will first affect knowledge workers.
A key topic in the discussion of individualised forms of virtual collaboration is their impact
on the balance between work and family commitments. Data from a representative survey of
Finnish workers leaves no doubt that ICT – in combination with new management practices –
has enabled work to “slop over” into leisure time, to the possible detriment of the interests of
the family. The question is whether this blurring of boundaries which have traditionally drawn
a clear line between work and private life impacts negatively on the health of the individuals
affected. The large majority of knowledge workers who use ICT (including mobile phones) to
stay connected to their work during their leisure time do not mind.36 One explanation is that
they realise that they also benefit from the increased flexibility in managing work and leisure
time schedules. Knowledge workers use ICT to extend their working hours, in particular using
36 However, 42 % of employed people in Germany, for example, have an e-mail address, and according to a study of
BITKOM that was mentioned in the German newspapers (21 August 2008, WAZ, Der Westen), 37 % of them would like
to have pre-defined days without any duty to read e-mails.
39
spare time during commuting for work-related tasks, but this is not necessarily considered a
problem by those concerned. Most studies of individualised virtual collaboration find longer
working hours are the result of working remotely. Remote workers are often unable to
“shut off the stress response after the end of the work day”, and that this “contributes to
the wear and tear on the body.” They conclude that” lack of time for rest and recovery
from work could be an even more important health risk in modern society than the
actual level of stress during work”. A study based on data from a comprehensive sample of
the Swedish workforce has shown that perceived work-life imbalances are associated with a
higher likelihood of gastrointestinal and cardiac problems and higher frequency of mood and
sleep disturbances and headaches (New Global 2007).
Although the BISER data confirms the results from other research that eWorkers tend to work
longer hours than non-eWorkers (see above), the interrelation may be less straightforward
than it seems. Recent research to control for other variables which can be expected to
influence working hours as well (occupation and occupational status, sector, tasks, decision-
making power, etc.) suggests that eWork itself does not impact on working hours, but rather
occurs in jobs that anyway tend to be characterised by long working hours (BISER 2004).
According to the 2002 Working Life Barometer for Finland, a country which has pioneered
mobile phone use, almost 40% of wage and salary earners have been carrying out work tasks
in their leisure time by means of a connection to their employer via mobile phone or ICT
network (Gareis 2006).
A case study on mobile and distributed work by knowledge workers showed that the
employees were working mainly in their offices, meeting in other places and at home.
However, they spent a considerable amount of time outside their office, i.e. travelling or
attending meetings and inspections. During business trips, they also worked in airports, trains,
hotel rooms and in customers’ offices using PSs. The personnel had flexible working hours
and were used to working with mobile phones, laptops and videoconferences provided by the
company.
That study revealed three major problems caused by distributed and mobile teamwork:
(i) Lack of shared project identity,
(ii) Lack of shared understanding of the project totality,
(iii) Lack of trust and collaboration between headquarters and regions.37
2.3.6 Possible evolution of the technology and future use of portable systems
The main corporate goals associated with the use of PSs are an increase in mobile workers’
productivity, enhancement of interactions with customers and improvement in the
collaboration with colleagues and partners. The most important factors in achieving such
goals are improvements in data availability and better communication. Innovative new
services characterized as unified communication will go beyond voice to video, instant
communication, and video conferencing, applications that already are used today by
knowledge workers and managers.
37 Virpi Ruohomäki “Distributed and Mobile Work – promoting Collaboration with the Teamwork Game” in: Matti
Vartiainen (Ed.): Workspace Methodologies – Studying Communication, Collaboration and Workscapes, Helsinki
University of Technology, Report 2006/3, Espoo.
40
The development of Internet services and applications and tools using the Internet is well in
line with these goals. For the purposes of this study, the current ideas and discussions around
the evolution of the Internet can best be dealt with by reference to the conceptual ideas of
Web 2.0. The most important Web 2.0 concept is that the Internet is not only a
communication network, but also an electronic platform for computing tasks that can run on
servers or even on local systems. This important concept is not new: it has already been
implemented by Application Service Providing (ASP)38. The ASP concept is particularly
important for PSs, because with it the design of PSs can be concentrated on the support of
communication tasks, whilst computing tasks are then run on an Internet platform. This opens
the way for small and lightweight PSs and especially for wearable systems. The
human/machine interface can be designed for communication tasks, for transmitting
commands and for viewing results.
Mobility, multimedia and the explosion of communities are three major trends in the
information society today. PSs enable mobility supporting multimedia communication within
communities.
Some universities, research institutes and companies around the world (for example, in
California, Pennsylvania, Australia, Austria, Japan, Sweden, etc.) have been developing – and
since 2008 selling – products with brain/computer interfaces based on electroencephalography
(EEG) technology. EEG is the measurement of electrical activity produced by the brain as
recorded by electrodes placed on the scalp39. Brain waves and muscle, skin or nerve activity
are detected by sensors attached to a headband40. The person’s intended move can be
“translated” into navigation commands, even for already implemented user interfaces. This
research reveals the potential for the development of innovative user interfaces for portable
and wearable systems.
2.4 Technological development and nanotechnology
Web 2.0 is a term describing the main trend in the use of World Wide Web (WWW)
technology and web design that aims to enhance creativity, information sharing and, most
notably, collaboration among users.41 Although the term suggests a new version of the
WWW, it refers not to an update of any technical specifications, but to changes in the ways
software developers and end-users use the Web.42
Web 2.0 websites allow users to do more than just retrieve information. They can build on
interactive facilities to provide “network as a platform” computing, allowing users to run
software applications entirely through a browser. Users can own the data on a website and
exercise control over that data. These sites may have an “architecture of participation” that
encourages users to add value to the application as they use it.43
What is the relevance of Web 2.0 ideas for mobile workers/mobile eWorkers and the further
development of ICT tools, especially PSs, supporting their work? Mobility, multimedia use
38 An application service provider (ASP) is a business that provides computer-based services to customers over a network.
Software offered using an ASP model is also sometimes called On-demand software or software as a service (SaaS),
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/application_service_provider.
39 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/electroencephalography
40 This technology is currently being launched in products for medical use and in gaming tools.
41 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/web_2.0
42 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/web_2.0
43 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_2.0
41
and the explosion of communities are the three major trends in the information society today.
We can forecast that these trends will also influence the behaviour of workers and will
dominate the future development of ICT solutions. The Internet as a “virtual world” will be
used to collaborate on such platforms and to transform results back into reality.44
Furthermore, the “Internet of Things”45 imports real objects (and subjects) into the Internet,
thus giving data (information) about an object’s/subject’s attributes, such as position or
direction of movement. This approach includes things that cannot have communication
behaviours of their own.
In computing, ambient intelligence (AmI) refers to electronic environments that are sensitive
and responsive to the presence of people. In an ambient intelligence world, devices and
systems work in concert to support people in carrying out their everyday activities and tasks
using data (information, knowledge) that is hidden in the network connecting these devices
and systems. As these devices and systems become smaller, more connected and more
integrated into our environment, the technology disappears into our surroundings until only
the user interface remains perceivable by users.46
The ambient intelligence paradigm builds upon ubiquitous computing and human-centric
computer interaction design and is characterized by systems and technologies that are:
· embedded: many networked devices/systems are integrated into the environment;
· context aware: these devices/systems can recognize users and their situational context;
· personalized: they can be tailored to the user’s needs;
· adaptive: they can change in response to the user;
· anticipatory: they can anticipate the user’s desires without conscious mediation47.
Ubiquitous computing is a post-desktop model of human/computer interaction in which
information processing has been thoroughly integrated into everyday objects and activities48.
In contrast to the desktop paradigm, in which a single user consciously engages a single
device/system for a specialized purpose, in ubiquitous computing many computational
devices and systems are engaged simultaneously in the course of ordinary activities, and
persons may not necessarily even be aware that they are using systems.
Bearing these trends in mind, we can forecast the application of wearable systems that use
sensors to capture data from their environment, whilst being connected to the Internet for the
support of collaborative activities. Such emerging technologies will be integrated into
innovative workplace designs and special solutions for the support of mobile workers/mobile
eWorkers.49
Other technological developments may also influence the evolution of PSs:
· Reusable paper contains a photochromic compound that makes ink disappear when hit by
direct heat.50
44 An example of this Internet usage evolution is Second Life, an Internet-based virtual world video game,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/second_life
45 In computing, the Internet of Things refers to a usually wireless and self-configuring electronic communication network
between objects, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/internet_of_things
46 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ambient_intelligence
47 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ambient_intelligence
48 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ubiquitous_computing
49 Readers interested in the development of wearable systems should read the documents provided by the EU-co-funded
project wearIT@work, such as “Empowering the Mobile Worker – Intelligent Clothing” (http://www.wearitatwork.com/).
50 http://spencerprint.blogspot.com/2008/05/at-gartner-symposiumitxpo-in-las.html
42
· Further development of tactile and touch user interfaces for computer programs with
haptic feedback methods using (multi-) touch screen displays and zooming software as a
combined input/output device, accepting even hand gestures with a writing utensil (like a
stylus), hand-writing and natural language for input. Non-command interfaces will be
implemented using sensors, cameras, and/or brain/computer interfaces which observe the
user to infer his/her intentions (see chapter above).
· Solid state memories without moving parts or mechanical actions and with miniaturized
form factors with capacities of more than 256 GB.51
· Computer systems implemented on one chip only. System-on-a-chip or system on chip
(SoC or SOC) refers to integrating all components of a computer or other electronic
system into a single integrated circuit (chip).52
· Visual display units (monitors) with three-dimensional video output that can be viewed
from different angles and exposed to direct sunlight53 or holographic displays54.
· Fuel cells55 providing electric power56.
· Very light, flexible and low-cost organic electronics57 that also can be used for electronic
paper58 or liquid crystal devices (LCD).
Nanotechnology
Last but not least, nanotechnology will have an influence on the further development of PSs.
The term “nanotechnology” refers to a field whose theme is the control of matter on an atomic
and molecular scale. Generally, nanotechnology deals with structures of the size of 100
nanometres or smaller, and involves developing materials or devices on that scale.
Nanotechnology mainly consists in the processing, separation, consolidation and deformation
of materials by one atom or one molecule.59 Nanotechnology is extremely diverse, ranging
from novel extensions of conventional device physics to completely new approaches based
upon molecular self-assembly and developing new materials with dimensions on the
nanoscale. There is even speculation as to whether we can directly control matter on the
atomic scale. Nanotechnology raises many of the same issues as the introduction of any new
technology, including concerns about the toxicity and environmental impact of nanomaterials,
their potential effects on global economics and speculation about various doomsday scenarios.
In future it will be possible to use nanotechnology to build portable ICT devices/systems,
especially portable computers. As scientists have raised concerns that the basic building
blocks of nanotechnology pose a potential new class of risk to health and the environment,60
these risks must also be considered in relation to occupational health and safety. For example,
nanotechnology is already a key technology in surface finishing. A specific risk with regard to
51 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/solid_state_disk
52 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/system-on-a-chip
53 see a product example at http://www.lightspacetech.com/
54 see a product example at http://blog.wired.com/gadgets/2008/06/usc-lab-creates.html#more
55 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/fuel_cell
56 A micro fuel cell is a portable power source for low power electronic devices that converts chemical energy into useable
electrical energy. It generates power through the electrochemical reaction of a fuel in the presence of a catalyst,
http://www.mtimicrofuelcells.com/technology/how.asp.
57 Organic electronics, or plastic electronics, is a branch of electronics that deals with carbon-based conductive polymers,
plastics, or small molecules, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/organic_electronics.
58 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/electronic_paper
59 Lauterwasser, Christoph (ed.) (2005). “Opportunities and risks of Nanotechnologies”, Allianz Group report in co-
operation with the OECD International Futures Programme, Allianz Center for Technology, München, Germany.
60 Lauterwasser, Christoph (ed.) (2005). “Opportunities and risks of Nanotechnologies”, Allianz Group report in co-
operation with the OECD International Futures Programme, Allianz Center for Technology, München, Germany.
43
occupational health and safety arises from the possibility of constructing computers so small
that they can be integrated into clothes and that such “undetectable” systems could be used to
control employees. For these reasons, the impact of nanotechnology must also be considered
when analysing the impact of portable devices/systems on occupational health and safety.61
Given these examples of the accelerated development of technology, it will be readily
understood that the development of PSs and related ICT infrastructure is unlikely to end in the
near future. With changing patterns of work organisation and altered tasks and activities, PSs
will gain in importance.
2.5 Work of tomorrow – future working patterns
Besides all the functions described in the preceding chapters, PSs have a role to play in
helping a mobile worker “on the move” to find out where, for example, appropriate spaces
and services are available at that location. PSs will function as the tool for ordering assistance,
services and resources.
However, PSs will have a much bigger role to play in enabling new forms of work. The
purposes which have traditionally required physical mobility may increasingly be achieved by
electronic means, certainly in the case of many office workers, and especially knowledge
workers. Companies are therefore constantly seeking out alternatives to physical mobility in
order to be able to control costs while still enjoying the benefits of close interconnectedness
with value chain partners and customers (Gareis 2006). Since portable technologies enable
mobile eWork, work is becoming more and more multi-locational and dispersed.
In a multilocal work environment mobile eWorkers will perform computer-supported
collaborative work (CSCW) using PSs and docking stations. New collaboration support
technologies, such as instant messaging and instant video conferencing for synchronous
communication, may well play a role similar to that of e-mail today for asynchronous
communication.
Knowledge workers of the future will use Internet applications that set up an “architecture of
participation”62 where users can contribute website content in such a way as to create network
effects. Such architecture of participation tends to foster innovation by pulling together
contributions from (widely) distributed, independent contributors. Wikis are (by now well-
known) examples of this phenomenon63. Architectures of participation can also be used to
support the work of blue collar workers “in the field”, since many types of work in this sector
also involve data/information/knowledge management. Examples of this would be: dealing
with work schedules, background information, problem-reporting or reports on work done.
“Virtual” environment issues, flexible and collaborative working practices, location-
independent approaches and incorporating emerging technologies into new workplace and
teamwork concepts will be the triggers for new work patterns in the future. The forms of work
61 Sutcliffe, Hilary; Hodgson, Simon (October 2006). “Briefing paper: An uncertain business: the technical, social and
commercial challenges presented by nanotechnology”.
62 O'Reilly and John Battelle: Opening talk of the first Web 2.0 conference, San Francisco, 2004,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/web_2.0.
63 A Wiki is a collection of web pages designed to enable anyone who accesses it to contribute or modify content, using a
simplified markup language. Wikis are often used to create collaborative websites and to power community websites. The
collaborative encyclopedia, Wikipedia, is one of the best-known wikis. Wikis are used in business to provide intranets and
knowledge management systems, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/wikis.
44
carried out by office and by non-office workers will differ in the detail; but in principle PSs
and related technologies will be able to, and indeed will, support tomorrow’s work patterns
generically.
“Virtual” environments will be connected to the real environment of the “Internet of Things”.
Passive and active sensors will monitor people’s activities, potentially without those observed
being aware of it. This poses the question as to who in future will be able to control the
“virtual” environment connected to the “Internet of Things”. Soon humans will become part
of technical systems – functioning as components, and prompting the question: who is the
device – the human or the technical environment? There is a good chance that future work
will be organised so that the worker is not the acting subject but rather the object of an
automatically controlled process. PSs in the form of wearable devices will play a large role in
this process.
2.6 Foreseeable future use of portable systems
This chapter gives a forecast for the future use of PSs. In 2008, CNET Networks64, USA,
conducted an interesting, so-called “instant poll” on their website, asking visitors to the site
which PSs they could least do without. The actual question was “Which gear is a must-
have?”65 What does this question have to do with the future use of PSs?
First of all, it seems obvious that synchronous voice communication is, and will continue to
be, the most important functionality of PSs. However, in less than 5 years all mobile phones
are expected to be Internet-capable systems.66 Why?
From a generic point of view, asynchronous and synchronous communication between
persons (and within teams) will be the most important functions, supplemented by
functionalities that support collaboration with individuals or teams. As mentioned above,
communication can best be supported by unified communication channels, collaboration by
traditional CSCW applications and – with growing importance – by Wikis67. Data
(information) will be pulled (traditional method) or pushed (instantly and actively
transferred).68 Applications such as web conferencing enable users to, for example, conduct
sales presentations, offer customer support, give product demonstrations, conduct online
training, collaborate with colleagues in workgroups and share web surfing sessions with other
users.
Secondly, typical laptop functionalities remain important today. Office workers use their
laptops mainly as text-editing machines, to write (and read) e-mails or documents, to give
presentations with slide shows, and for access to the Internet or remote access to company
computer networks. Non-office workers use their laptops mainly for special software
applications running on the laptop and for remote access to their company’s computer
network. However, all these typical functionalities can be implemented by applications
running on an Internet platform (ASP concept, including extranets). In the future, the PSs will
therefore only be used as a gateway to the Internet platform; modern and personalized
64 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CNET
65 From CNET instant poll results, http://polls.cnet.com, a no longer valid WWW address.
66 Prof. Rahim Tafazolli, The University of Surrey, England: “Next Generation 3D Internet (Post-IP) leading to 4D Mobile
Internet”, Slide show 31 January 2008, EU consultation meeting “Future Internet”.
67 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/wikis
68 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/push_e-mail
45
browsers will be the user interface for all applications and for unified communication
channels. The user will not need to know where data and/or applications are stored.
Thirdly, PSs using the Global Positioning System (GPS)69 are already common nowadays
and their use is increasing. GPS devices are able to determine their absolute location, relative
movement (speed, direction) and receive time data. This allows GPS devices to perform as a
surveying tool, as an aid to navigation or, for example, as a positioning tool for emergency
calls. Location-aware70 applications use such data. Together with the Internet of Things and
the use of RFID tags (radio-frequency identification tag is an object that can be applied to, or
incorporated into, a product, animal or person for the purpose of identification and tracking
using radio waves. Some tags can be read from several meters away and beyond the line of
sight of the reader), data about current location and direction of motion facilitates the
calculation of the optimal sequence for the performance of tasks in logistics and distribution,
for instance. Location-awareness and other data about the work environment and work
context (context-awareness71) will help PSs to assist workers in a much more straightforward
way than today. Location and context awareness can be achieved, for example, by using
sensors, cameras, brain/computer interfaces, positioning systems and databases with
background information. Future PSs will be user-, location- and context-aware. Location,
context and user attributes will be relevant input for many applications and in collaborative
tasks. For instance, such data is very useful for supporting safety precautions for fire workers
during a mission.
Fourthly, many people responding to the CNET poll replied that portable printers were a
must, thus indicating the value of traditional paper. However, a great deal of effort has been
put into producing so-called electronic paper displays72, perhaps in the form of organic
electronics73, and reusable paper (see chapter 2.4 “Technological development and
nanotechnology”). E-book readers74 are very lightweight systems that provide a crisp, clear
and paper-like image which is visible indoors and outdoors, including in full sunlight. As
soon as such systems can be used like traditional paper, portable printers will no longer be
viewed as essential.
Based on distributed object technology standards, future infrastructures and solutions will
integrate intelligent and mobile agents, location-/context-aware personalized (user-aware)
event-based communication as well as pushes of information. Mobile working will be
supported by the integration of PSs into the Internet platform. Dynamic user profiles and
context attributes will allow highly adaptive mobile services.
Future services will enable users and user groups to develop their own services, to be creative
with respect to content generation, presentation and communication, to interact with a
community of users in a group-specific manner, to explore, adjust and set up their own mobile
communication environment and information space. There will be a greater degree of
interaction with systems and devices in the user’s environment, leading to the development of
an intelligent environment that is integrated into the service delivery chain and will support
69 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GPS
70 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/location_awareness
71 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/context_awareness
72 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/electronic_paper
73 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/organic_electronics
74 http://wiki.mobileread.com/wiki/E-book_Reader_Matrix
46
advanced communication services for communities of users (adapted from “The Disappearing
Computer”, 2002).75
Furthermore, solutions for which portable systems are particularly suitable, such as mobile-to-
mobile payments or the use of portable devices for digital signatures, will become common.
In the future PSs will be used, and probably will have to be used, by all workers as the
gateway to the “virtual world” set up by the future Internet platform that will come to
dominate work environments and influence all types of work and many sorts of activities and
tasks.
Smart phones will become the ICT interface most widely used by mobile workers in the near
future; wireless peripherals such as keyboards, displays and backup devices will be
connected, new scrolling user interfaces will also provide special text entry techniques,
gesture as an interaction technique and voice input and commands (Lawo 2008).
2.7 Discussion and conclusions
Little statistical data is available about the use of PSs in an occupational environment. Most
statistics in this field are for consumer products. However, they do reveal some trends. While
in the past innovation in ICT evolved from occupational use, now innovation takes place in
consumer electronics and is subsequently adapted for occupational use.
PSs can be classified by their application-oriented design, which means that the systems are
mainly intended either for communication or for computing tasks. Systems designed for
communication tasks are more miniaturized and lighter than those designed for computing
tasks and therefore are more appropriate for supporting mobile work. For this reason, if all
PSs were adapted for the use of computing facilities via the Internet or other networks
(application service providing [ASP]), this would allow the design of PSs for communication
tasks only. Computing tasks could then be run on servers, leaving PSs to control the tasks and
receive and display the results.
Technological development will go in the direction of unified communication and information
channels that allow multimedia communication (voice, data, text and video) together with all
possible related services, such as instant teleconferencing, asynchronous communication and
event-driven information pushes.
Typical work using PSs is characterised by activities that can be and are supported by ICT
regardless of the profession or job involved. Whether people are working in customs control,
facility services, home care or as project managers, most types of mobile work (including
micro-mobility) can be – and in the future will be – supported in some way by the use of PSs.
It is therefore impossible to categorize the use of PSs by types of work or types of
professions. In contrast to service-oriented work, in production-oriented work much less ICT
support is possible. However, there is one group of workers in all professions who use ICT to
a very high degree. These are the so-called knowledge workers, who typically also use PSs
while “on the go” or “on the move”.
75 The Disappearing Computer is a EU-funded initiative of the Future and Emerging Technologies (FET) activity of the
Information Society Technologies (IST) research program, see http://www.disappearing-computer.net/, and
http://cordis.europa.eu/ist/fet/dc.htm.
47
Turning to the impact of PSs on occupational health and safety, we suggest making a
distinction between office workers and non-office workers. This distinction is mainly
connected with the considerable differences in the work environment of mobile eWorkers;
these differences lead to differences in the design of PSs, especially when they are ruggedized
or to be used outdoors.
It can be shown that the work environment of mobile eWorkers is much worse than that of
stationary workers, both in terms of real and “virtual” work settings, space and environmental
conditions and in terms of mental/social space requirements. Furthermore, in the majority of
cases this work environment changes in the course of the working day, and often cannot be
fully controlled by the employer.
Under some circumstances, the time and place of work no longer seem relevant and the
boundaries between working time and leisure time are bound to disappear. Once workers use
PSs, they choose different working locations, such as other locations belonging to their
employer, the premises of customers or clients, hotels and meeting venues, teleservice centres
and temporary locations while on the move. The possibility of communicating and interacting
with colleagues and customers by using PSs will lead to the habitual use of such systems by
every worker, a likely development given the current rate of use of mobile phones.
From the perspective of mobile eWorkers themselves, one challenge will be to explore how
portable technology can be used to empower workers (both as individuals and in teams) to
build innovative work environments. PSs can support access to data (information, knowledge)
and facilitate collaboration. In the future, in developed economies most, or even all, workers
will need access to data and the support of collaboration. With an increasing need for
flexibility and mobility, the number of mobile eWorkers (and the use of PSs) will also further
increase.
PSs are ICT tools used for ICT related activities regardless of the sector of use. Therefore the
work environment of mobile workers, which differs greatly between office and non-office
workers, is of greater importance for occupational health and safety.
Variables which can be expected to influence working hours (occupation and occupational
status, sector, tasks, decision-making power, etc.) suggest that neither eWork nor mobile
eWork nor the occasional use of PSs have, in themselves, any direct impact on working hours.
Rather they are used in jobs that anyway tend to be characterised by long working hours. The
same conclusion may well apply to the influence of PSs on the boundary between work hours
and private time, and hence on the work-life balance. Then again, the round-the-clock
availability of workers due to their mobile phones or other PSs will have some degree of
influence, depending on the personal behaviour of those involved. The use of profiles
allocating PSs to work or to private time might help to deal with this situation. Such profiles
could automatically be set dependent on time or location or other context data, such as sensor
data.
If we look at other examples of accelerated technological evolution, it can easily be imagined
that the development of PSs and the related ICT infrastructure will not end in the near future.
Indeed, as the way work is organised changes, and tasks and activities alter, PSs will gain in
importance.
“Virtual” environment issues, flexible and collaborative working practices, location-
independent approaches and emerging technologies incorporated into new workplaces and
48
teamwork concepts will trigger new developments in the working patterns of the future.
Forms of work will differ for office workers and non-office workers in the details; but in
principle PS-related technologies can and will support tomorrow’s work patterns in a generic
way.
In the future, all workers will be connected to the Internet with some type of PS, and will use
PSs, because of their micro-mobility and the need to use PSs as the gateway to the “virtual
world” set up by the Internet platform of the future. The emerging Internet platform will
dominate work environments and will influence all types of work and many activities and
tasks.
In principle, there will be no boundary between work hours and private time because of the
permanent availability of the worker and of data about his/her actual location and living
context. Profiles might help to solve the problems for the work-life balance which thus arise.
PSs are designed to be portable. The main usability design criterion is the ability to support
mobile people. The conflict between ergonomic criteria and portability may not be fully
resolvable though a special workplace design for instant offices and work places with docking
stations for mobile eWorkers at stationary points (hotels, meeting rooms, Internet cafés, other
premises belonging to their or their customer’s organisation, at home, on trains or planes)
might help. With regard to occupational safety and health, due to the fact that future PSs will
be limited to supporting communication and collaboration, wearable computers and paper-like
input-output devices may be able to meet the criteria for both ergonomics and usability.
49
III Assessment of the OSH risks
1. Psychosocial risk factors
Summary
This part of the report aims to highlight sources of psychosocial load and strain in mobile
work using portable computing and communication devices. Important stressors that have
been found include the blurring of boundaries between work and family life, increases in
working time, difficulties in supervising mobile employees and the feeling of the mobile
employees themselves that they are insufficiently involved in the company’s decisions and
have poorer career prospects. These stressors may lead to increased mental fatigue, which
may then have long-term consequences, such as impairment of the immune system,
psychosomatic diseases, sleep disorders or cardiovascular disease. Measures to reduce mental
strain in mobile workers using portable computing and communication devices include the
training and preparation of these employees for self-organisation when mobile and for
detecting and preventing stressors with potentially negative health consequences. Feed-back
routines for the evaluation of achievement should be agreed on and employees should not be
forced to be constantly available. It must also be borne in mind that the psychosocial risks
which arise may differ significantly according to the specific job and sector, whether
industrial or administrative.
Introduction
When considering the use of portable computing and communication devices and its
psychosocial implications it quickly becomes apparent that this application creates specific
working conditions that may offer a wide range of new opportunities. However, along with
positive effects, such as an increase in flexibility and autonomy, potentially negative
consequences may also develop for employees working under these conditions as well as for
their employers. These potential drawbacks include social isolation and communication
barriers.
This chapter presents the results of a literature analysis and interviews with experts on
psychosocial risk factors and resources for work with portable computing and communication
devices. Analysing the psychosocial consequences of this type of work primarily involves an
investigation into the working conditions created by the use of these devices. These specific
risk factors and resources will be presented in detail in the next part of this chapter.
To date, research in this particular field has been very limited. Hislop and Axtell (2007), for
example, found only three studies providing empirical data on mobile telework, a related
concept of work which includes the use of portable, mobile computing and communication
devices and which only recently has become a subject of scientific research. According to
Daniels et al. (2001) mobile telework is characterized as work usually involving travel and/or
spending time at the customer’s premises, whereby people doing this work may use laptop
computers, mobile phones or other mobile technical devices to support their work. Studies of
mobile telework mostly concentrate on classic mobile office employees, such as managers or
sales people.
50
However, portable computing and communication devices are also used by employees who
work on the company’s premises or at least within a narrow local radius, for example, drivers
or service engineers. Therefore, Kohn (2006) has introduced the concept of mobile ICT-
supported work (mobile information and communication technology-supported work) in
order to include all these different users of portable computing and communication devices.
Up to now, the psychosocial consequences for this wider concept have not been studied, so
this part of the study has had to concentrate on the few results that have been derived from the
field of mobile telework. In order to include more relevant results, other forms of work that
share at least some specific characteristics with ICT-supported work were also considered.
These were home-based telework, which also uses ICT for information exchange between
the teleworker and the employer and his or her colleagues, and flexible work, which
concentrates on flexible working-time arrangements but also on a high degree of self-
organization. Especially for home-based telework, broad scientific knowledge can be found
(Hislop, Axtell, 2007).
However, with respect to criteria such as influence over the job or support through ICT, these
related forms of work also differ significantly from each other in terms of the resulting strain
(see figure 14). Thus, when including results from these related work forms, careful
consideration has to be given to which scientific results can be applied to describing the risks
and resources of work using portable computing and communication devices.
Figure 14: Effects of different forms of telework from a study among members of the
three groups
100
Fixed-site Teleworker
80
Flexiworker
Mobile Worker
per 60
ce
nt
40
20
0
Influence over
Computer
Job satisfaction Ability to keep
Computers
job
facilitates work
up with
enhance
monitoring
workload
productivity
Source: Garrett, Danziger, 2007.
This chapter will show how specific psychosocial risk factors and resources were derived
from the literature. These risk factors and resources will be assigned to different categories of
stress identifiable within the work process (see Paridon et al., 2004). Additionally, the
category “personal influences” is used. The categories are:
· Work organization,
· Work content,
· Social relations at work,
· Operational and societal conditions,
· Personal influences.
The specific psychosocial resources and risk factors will be investigated and individual and
organizational consequences will be discussed.
51
The psychosocial implications of work with portable computing and communication devices
will also be considered with reference to specific illnesses or accidents caused by this form of
work, future technologies, the ageing workforce and the increasing share of women in the
workforce. To supplement the results from the literature analysis results from four expert
interviews will be provided.
Deduction of psychosocial risk factors and resources
Salanova and Schaufeli (2000) argue that it is not mere exposure to technology per se which
is responsible for health consequences, but rather mediating variables such as job
characteristics or the appraisal of exposure. This general finding can be applied when looking
at the consequences of work involving portable computing and communication devices as
well. It is not, or at least not only, the mobile use of the technology itself that leads to positive
or negative outcomes but rather the whole organizational setting and also the personal
characteristics of the users. The investigation into psychosocial risk factors and resources
focuses on these organizational and personal conditions while cognitive ergonomics focuses
on the psychological consequences of the use of portable ICT itself, mainly including aspects
of usability. These will be discussed in the next chapter.
Gajendran and Harrison (2007) developed a model to explain the psychosocial consequences
of telecommuting, a term which may be regarded as synonymous with telework (see figure
15). They consider perceived autonomy, work/family conflict (conflict between the role at
work and the role in the family) and relationship quality at work to be mediating factors in the
relationship between telecommuting and individual outcomes such as job satisfaction,
performance, turnover intention, role stress and perceived career prospects.
Figure 15: Theoretical framework for the consequences of telecommuting
Psychological Mediators
Individual Outcomes
Job
Satisfaction
Telecommuting
Perceived
intensity
Autonomy
Performance
Telecommuting
Work-Family
(flexible work location)
Conflict
Job Turnover
Intention
Relationship
quality
Role Caused
Stress
Perceived
Career
Prospects
Source: Gajendran & Harrison, 2007.
52
The model has been developed from a meta-analysis mainly including studies on home-based
telework but also some on mobile telework. Particular relationships between these variables
are proposed and have been investigated in the study. Telecommuting, for example, is
positively related to perceived autonomy, which strongly influences the effect of
telecommuting on job satisfaction. This means telecommuting has a positive influence on job
satisfaction when autonomy is perceived. Telecommuting also has direct relations to the
individual outcomes.
A substantial problem that develops from mobile telework refers to access to information as
well as information input and processing (Schulte, 1999). Technical developments in this field
have been substantial, as explained in chapter 1, but still mobile teleworkers often do not have
the same access to work-related information, and particularly informal information, as their
colleagues in the office.
Schulte (1999) and Richter et al. (2007) refer to the difficulties that mobile telework creates
for the work-life balance. Both emphasize that mobile teleworkers tend to work longer and
often do not effectively separate work from leisure time.
Salanova and Schaufeli (2000) found that the impact of the use of information technology on
the development of burnout is strongly influenced by the appraisal and experience of the
users. It should, therefore, be ensured that employees who regularly work with information
technology are thoroughly familiarised with their technical devices and feel comfortable using
them.
A study by Pérez et al. (2002) of a Spanish sample of different companies using telework
found that the major problem of telework for the companies was management by supervisors.
Richter et al. (2007) considered the psychosocial resources and risks of mobile virtual work
with a special emphasis on virtual teams. These teams included members working from very
different locations with the support of mobile ICT devices and who may therefore be
considered mobile teleworkers. The authors quote Sennett (1998), who points out that
“mobile business structures are an erosion of the employee-employer relationship and a
breakdown of the classical occupational biography”. In their opinion the consequences of the
change developing with mobile business structures have not yet been clearly identified but
Richter et al. present scientific findings that illustrate at least some of the resources and risk
factors. The workload in virtual work identified in their article refers not only to “distinct
work tasks, working hours, role conflicts, or personal concerns but also to an increasing
amount of necessary organizational and procedural regulations, and less contact with other
colleagues”.
A comparative study of virtual and non-virtual working teams by Richter et al. (2007)
revealed that virtual teams exhibited more enriched job characteristics, for example, amount
of organizational tasks, learning requirements and participation. Virtual and mobile work
places were found to be more flexible and to require intensive interaction with ICT tools.
Richter et al. (2007) also mention the difficulties arising from mobile virtual work in the areas
of collaboration and motivation. These aspects are also investigated in a study by Schulte
(1999). Schulte introduces communication problems in mobile work within the frame of the
transaction cost model (Coase, 1937 in Schulte, 1999). The model refers to costs that arise
from the need to coordinate economic relationships, for example, searching for information
about future contract partners, contract negotiation or supervision of finalising contracts. This
53
coordination is naturally more difficult and produces higher costs when the partners have to
communicate via ICT so the model may be applied to work using portable computing and
communication devices.
Motivation in this study is considered from two different perspectives. On the one hand, the
mobile-working employee may be motivated to opportunistically abuse the information
asymmetry towards the supervisor which arises from their significant autonomy by not
transferring important information or not working the agreed amount of time. On the other
hand, the study also shows how mobile ICT can negatively influence the intrinsic motivation
of the mobile worker through a feeling of supervision and control due to permanent
availability.
The psychosocial resources and risk factors involved in the use of portable information
technology at work mentioned in this introduction are combined in table 8. Variables from a
comparison by Pyöriä (2003) containing more positive and negative aspects of distributed
work, a form of work also sharing the main characteristics of mobile telework, are added.
Table 8: Assignment of resources and risk factors to forms of work load
Resources
Risk Factors
Work Organization
Flexibility
Working time: higher quantitative work-load
Communication barriers
Reduced information access and processing
Work-life balance
Permanent availability
Work content
Autonomy/Increased freedom of action
Job enrichment
Social relations at work
Lack of social support and isolation
Limited possibilities for supervision and
leadership difficulties
Operational and societal conditions
Work place insecurity
Personal Influences
Ability to self-organize
The above-mentioned categories with their risk factors and resources will be investigated in
the following section, which describes specific health and accident risks. As working
conditions in work using portable computing and communication devices can differ
significantly between individual workers, this review can only give a general insight into
resources and risk factors. Nor are the variables perfectly disjunctive. This fact may lead to
some overlaps or small repetitions in the results of the investigation. Furthermore, it must be
stated that the assignment of a factor as a resource or a risk factor is generally not
unambiguous. Most of the factors found may influence mental health positively or negatively
depending on their specific design and intensity in a particular work situation. This will
become obvious in the next section.
54
When considering telework in general and work using portable computing and
communication devices in particular, it should be borne in mind that the employees are mostly
not full-time teleworkers as they also do part of their work at the company’s premises.
1.1 Investigation into specific psychosocial resources and risk factors
1.1.1 Work organization
Flexibility
Flexibility as a whole cannot be judged good or bad. The consequences for work organization
and health in particular largely depend on arrangements decided between the employer and
the employee, as has been found by the Risk Observatory on emerging psychosocial risks
(European Agency for Safety and Health at Work, 2007). A study by Martinez et al. (2007)
comparing companies using and not using different forms of telework concludes that
teleworking may develop its full potential when it is implemented together with other flexible
workplace practices (flexitime, variable payment, etc.).
According to a report by Broughton (2007), 83% of workers who combine work outside the
company’s premises with work at home say that they can change the order of their work tasks.
This compares with 60% for those whose work is company-based. 51.1% of workers who
work away from the company’s premises (mobile teleworkers) stated that they do not have
fixed starting and finishing times. A study by Paridon and Hupke (2008) confirmed these
results, showing that 77% of a sample of mobile teleworkers investigated could often or
always organize work flexibly.
The figures illustrate the fact that the flexibility of non-company based workers is generally
higher than that of workers based on the company’s premises. A longitudinal study by
Konradt and Schmook (1999) confirms these results for home-based teleworkers, particularly
with regard to work time flexibility.
High levels of flexibility are evaluated positively by mobile teleworkers while low levels less
often receive positive evaluations (Paridon & Hupke, 2008). Flexibility may equal control and
increase the perception of autonomy (Hackman and Oldham, 1976), so higher levels of
flexibility may increase work motivation and job satisfaction (Gajendran and Harrison, 2007)
especially for knowledge workers who are capable of the amount of self-organization
required.
However, the increased need for self-organization that arises as a consequence of increased
autonomy may also be a source of increased stress, especially for those workers who are not
used to higher amounts of self-organization. Training should ensure that these workers are
well prepared for the working conditions which evolve from work using portable computing
and communication devices. To the author’s knowledge, the likely relationship between the
evaluation of flexibility and the ability to self-organize has not yet been studied.
Working time may be organized very flexibly and offer the potential for a better work-life
balance. Still, for a significant number of working people regularity in working time is more
important than flexibility when their private commitments are considered (European
Foundation for the Improvement of Living Conditions, 2007). Work time flexibility may,
therefore, appear to be an advantage of mobile work, but the employees themselves might not
55
regard it as such and prefer to retain regular working times. The higher flexibility of mobile
workers may also generally support the work-life balance, as private duties may be fulfilled
more flexibly. This may help to reduce feelings of stress. Conversely, boundaries between
work and leisure time may be blurred (Mann & Holdsworth, 2003) by working evenings or
weekends or in between leisure activities.
Goudsward and de Nanteuil (2000) state that flexible employment strategies in most cases
lead to a lack of control over working time. Martens (1999) shows that flexible work
schedules are positively correlated with health complaints and a general decrease in well-
being. The study does not concentrate only on mobile workers but also includes shift and
temporary workers so that it is not completely clear if these results can be extrapolated.
However, the relationships presented stress the importance of further investigation into the
results of flexible working times for mobile workers.
It is important to distinguish between forced and freely-chosen flexibility. While freely-
chosen flexibility has generally positive consequences for employee health, forced flexibility
may, according to the Risk Observatory on emerging psychosocial risks, result in a decrease
in psychological and physical well-being (European Agency for Safety and Health at Work,
2007). Mobile teleworkers may differ in that respect as well, in view of the particularly high
strain for on-demand mobile teleworkers.
Flexibility for employees using portable computing and communication devices also means
flexibility in the place of work. This includes the need to search for appropriate places to use
mobile technology, for example, flat surfaces for laptop-use or quiet places for telephone
calls. Searching for such places together with a feeling of insecurity as to whether technical
devices will work properly (for example, whether a mobile telephone connection is available
when urgently needed) may also induce increased levels of stress.
Changes in working time
In the general telework literature there is much data that supports the view that working away
from the company’s premises leads to an increase in working time, as figures from several
European countries show. Dutch teleworkers work 46 hours a week on average while non-
teleworkers only work 39. Many of these workers are not eligible for overtime pay. In France,
a study by the National Institute for Statistics and Economic Studies (Institut National de la
Statistique et des Études Économiques, INSEE) over the period 1999 to 2003 found that
teleworkers commonly reported working at night and on weekends. 20% stated that they
regularly worked between 10 p.m. and 6 a.m., compared with 10% of other employees
(Broughton, 2007). It may also be assumed that teleworkers do not regularly take breaks, as
there are no external prompts to remind them. A permanent lack in recovery time can lead to
increased risks of cardiovascular diseases (Martens et al., 1999).
According to Richter et al. (2007) the work of virtual teams consists of longer work cycles.
They state that often there are high expectations of virtual teams as they are supposed to be
experts. There may be pressure to work longer and provide the best possible results as a result
of this expectation.
Many mobile workers spend a considerable amount of time travelling, but the time they
actually spend on trains or other means of transport is not fully recognized as working time
(Weber-Bensch, 2005). Such company policy may cut significantly into leisure time.
56
Communication barriers
Electronic communication does not yet and probably will never fully match the richness of
face-to-face communication. Mulki et al. (2008), for example, report study results showing
that e-mail contact generally lacks the richness and social presence associated with face-to-
face dealings. Nor can increased communication via email fully replace face-to-face or
telephone communication.
When considering mobile phone use it is important to be aware of the social context
surrounding it. Often mobile phone users are not alone during calls or find themselves in
places where telephoning is not appropriate, such as in trains, restaurants or libraries (Hislop
& Axtell, 2007). This situational component may induce stress.
Andres (2002) proposes two criteria that can help to structure the advantages and
disadvantages of electronic communication: social presence and media richness. Media
richness refers to the existence of verbal cues76, facial expressions, gaze, gesture, posture,
physical proximity and back-channelling cues77 in communication. The lower this variability
is, the more uncertainty and ambiguity may arise and complicate communication processes.
Social presence refers to a feeling of being jointly involved in communication and feeling the
presence of communication partners. Past research has identified a continuum for social
presence ranging from e-mail, teleconferencing and computer-desktop conferencing to face-to
face communication.
A lack of social contact cues may lead to an increasingly negative communication tone that
includes assertive or hostile language and an increased sense of depersonalisation (Siegel et
al., 1986, Sproull & Kiesler, 1986). On the other hand, asynchronous work-groups (work
groups who work on tasks at different times and not together) experience greater productivity
(Ocker et al., 1996), especially when there are no time constraints and interdependence of
tasks is low. However, when time constraints and task interdependence increase, the
productivity of virtual teams falls below face-to-face groups. Thus the context of electronic
communication plays an important role in productivity.
With regard to the health and well-being of employees using portable computing and
communication devices, it can be stated that decreases in productivity and increases in effort
in order to maintain effective information exchange may lead to uncertainty and ambiguity,
which in turn may increase stress levels.
However, a study among human resources experts by Pérez et al. (2002) found that
communication problems were not perceived as important barriers to the implementation of
telework. This may indicate a difference in the perception of the consequences of telework
between the management and the workers themselves.
Pyöriä (2003) emphasises the fact that tacit or implicit knowledge is very difficult to acquire
in mobile telework. Tacit knowledge refers to a concept by Polanyi (1966). It is knowledge
which is not explicitly formulated and often not explicable but rather can be acquired by
observing experts working or by longer discussion. This might, for example, be the case when
a mobile worker seeks information from an expert located at the company’s premises which is
difficult to explain in words, e.g. information on certain computer routines or customers. This
kind of knowledge is very difficult to transfer by phone or other means of electronic
76 Accentuation or emphasis of important contents e.g. by repetition, speaking louder.
77 Expressions indicating that the listener is following the speaker, such as “Oh” or “Mm”.
57
communication. Hardill and Greene (2003) also conclude that face-to-face contact and inter-
organisational transfer of employees are still crucial elements in knowledge transfer.
Meyer et al. (2007) report problems of virtual collaboration such as a lack of opportunity to
contact supervisors to coordinate work immediately. Therefore, mobile workers should be
given a high degree of involvement in decisions and the task design should be considered in
more detail, especially regarding job demands and decision latitude.
In virtual teams conflicts are often detected too late. It is therefore recommended that efficient
communication and collaboration processes be implemented to prevent misunderstandings
and conflicts (Hertel et al., 2005). It is also important to structure the details of the work, for
example, tasks and timelines. These tasks should be led by supervisors.
Reduced information access and processing
Technically supported communication may cause certain indirect costs, such as a loss of time
or of important information. To structure costs that may arise due to electronic
communication, Schulte proposes the use of the Transaction Cost Model by Coase (1937, in
Schulte 1999). A transaction cost is a cost incurred in making an economic exchange.
Transaction costs mainly refer to information and communication costs that are necessary for
the coordination and reconciliation of economic relationships.
According to Schulte (1999) specific problems for information access and processing arise
from mobile telework. Costs may arise from the search for, and acquisition of, information
needed for a certain work process. In a mobile setting such processes become more
complicated as the employee sometimes cannot access company information. Increasing
opportunities for online data exchange may reduce these costs and also the mental strain
accompanying it over time. Yet it remains doubtful whether technical developments will be
able to fully eliminate these costs.
The location of a mobile employee at any given time is often unclear. This creates
uncertainty, especially in cases when expert knowledge or particular information is needed
quickly. The cost of initiating contact rises in such situations along with feelings of
uncertainty on the part of colleagues and supervisors on the company’s premises, as the onus
to make contact lies with the employee.
Possibilities for information input and processing are increasing with the development of new
technical devices and ways to transfer information online. However, a great deal of
information is still first recorded on paper and later transferred when employees work online.
These tasks increase quantitative work load and may lead to stress and fatigue.
58
Information overload
While a lack of important information may cause insecurity and stress, workers may also
suffer from an overload of information provided through their mobile portable devices. In the
study by Paridon and Hupke (2008) 58% of the workers indicated having feelings of often or
always being overloaded with information. About 50% of all participants said they often or
always receive useless information. It may be assumed that this useless information accounts
for a significant part of information overload. Companies therefore should try to specifically
reduce this source of overload and simultaneously give mobile ICT supported workers the
means to store and pass on important information in such a way that it can be administered
easily.
Blurring of boundaries between work and private life
The work-life balance is considered to be influenced positively by home-based telework,
particularly by high flexibility. Mobile ICT workers, in contrast, only rarely work at home, so
their work-life balance is more comparable with that of those working permanently on the
company’s premises. However, for many mobile employees there might be opportunities to at
least sometimes arrange work and private life according to their needs.
As in home-based telework problems may arise from the fact that portable computing and
communication devices are always accessible and so employees might also work during
evenings or weekends. However, this assumption could not generally be confirmed by data
from Hupke and Paridon (2008). 55% of mobile workers in this study said they never or only
rarely face blurring of boundaries between work and private life.
Hislop and Axtell (2007) point out in their study that huge differences exist between
employees with low and those with high levels of discretion. While low discretion workers
such as service engineers normally just work locally and need to be mobile within a radius of
a maximum of 20 kilometres, high discretion workers often have to travel long distances and
stay away from home for several nights. These characteristics lead to huge differences when
referring to the relative work-life balance of the employee groups. High discretion workers’
mobility generally had a negative impact on their work-life balance while for low discretion
workers the opposite was true.
In contrast to home-based workers, who face stress related to work-life balance when they
cannot reconcile work and family life, it is the regular absence from home that causes stress in
mobile high discretion workers in this area.
In a study by the Confederation of German Trade Unions (DGB) among 512 mobile and
1,194 company-based employees (Fuchs, 2008, Brandt & Brandl, 2008) mobile workers said
that the incompatibility of work and family is one of the most negative aspects of mobile
work.
Permanent availability
60% of mobile employees studied by Paridon and Hupke (2008) reported that they always or
at least often have to be available for colleagues and supervisors. Being available at all times
bears the risk of blurring the boundaries between work and private life and therefore
59
decreases the work-life balance. This applies especially to staff with supervisory
responsibilities and self-employed workers, as reported in the Fourth European Working
Conditions Survey (European Foundation for the Improvement of Working and Living
Conditions, 2007). It also increases disturbances in work flow.
In her study on mobile work Weber-Bensch (2005) found that permanent availability is
considered a negative strain factor by many employees and the feeling of permanent control
that may arise is related to reduced well-being.
Permanent availability also increases the quantity of communication processes, but at the
same time often lowers their quality and disturbs work-flow significantly. In the U.S. the new
field of “interruption science” is being developed. This deals with the consequences of
permanent availability and the interruptions caused by it. Studies in this field have found that
every interruption is connected with a rise in heart rate and skin conductivity which are
indicators of an increase in stress (Dörner, 2008).
1.1.2 Work content
Autonomy/Increased freedom of action
Autonomy is considered a key mediating factor in the model by Gajendran and Harrison
(2007) of the consequences of telecommuting (see figure 15). It significantly influences the
relationship between telecommuting and job satisfaction, turnover intent and role stress.
Telecommuting is positively correlated to these three variables when autonomy is given to the
mobile worker. A study by Martens (1999) on different flexible workplaces found that job
autonomy is negatively correlated with health complaints and a decrease in well-being,
indicating that autonomy generally has a positive influence on physical and mental health at
work.
However, autonomy may also involve risks. From the employer’s perspective a lack of
opportunities for supervision may lead to doubts as to whether employees are correctly
fulfilling work requirements or taking advantage of their increased freedom of action.
Additionally, the employee may sometimes be unsure about how to make decisions in certain
situations, compounded by the fact that an increase in autonomy increases the number of
decisions to be taken. Autonomy may thus lead to mobile employees suffering from higher
insecurity and mental strain.
Therefore, mobile work should be the subject of clear agreements between employer and
employee (Pyöriä, 2003). These agreements should be evaluated carefully by both parties as
autonomy is sometimes diminished when telecommuting employees have to sign very
detailed agreements specifying work in much more detail than is actually needed. On the
other hand, a certain degree of specification may generally be very helpful for the employees.
Work enrichment
Work enrichment in virtual work is discussed by Richter et al. (2007). For example, they state
that in virtual teams more organizational tasks and functions are transferred to the group
members, that the group organises work by itself to a greater extent, members face
significantly more learning demands and responsibilities, and that they are more involved in
60
planning processes. Higher levels of stress and lower levels of fatigue were observed in
virtual teams.
This corresponds to the findings of Montreuil and Lippel (2003), who also state that enriched
jobs create more stress. There are associations proposed between levels of stress and different
aspects of work which include organizational demands, increased responsibility, increased
amounts of cooperation as well as rising sequential completeness (work tasks including
different steps from planning to organization, execution and evaluation). Richter et al. (2007)
propose a curvilinear relationship between job enrichment and stress according to the Vitamin
Model (Warr, 1987) stating that too many or too complex tasks may have similar effects on
the development of negative mental strain, as does too little variety of tasks.
1.1.3 Social relations at work
Social support and isolation
According to European research, employees that work away from the company’s premises
may suffer from a lack of contact and social support from their colleagues and supervisors.
This may be even more difficult for lower skilled workers as they often do not take part in
regular team meetings (European Foundation for the Improvement of Working and Living
Conditions, 2007). Data from the European Working Conditions Survey (2005) shows that
when employees were asked whether their job involved exchange of communication and
working materials or results, 80.1% of people who work at home, including teleworkers,
stated that their job did not. Likewise, 74.2% of those combining working away from
company’s premises and work at home stated that their job did not involve these kinds of
exchange, and 64.8% of those working solely outside the company’s premises gave the same
answer. This compares with 52.4% of those working on the company’s premises.
With regard to isolation in mobile telework, the research shows mixed results (Mulki et al.,
2008). Mann and Holdsworth (2003) report from their study on home-based teleworkers that
67% of respondents said they at least sometimes suffer from loneliness at their workplace.
Mulki et al. (2008) report results from different studies, such as the feeling of being left out
due to a lack of personal contact, loss of camaraderie and little chance for informal meetings
and exchange (non-company-administered information exchange between employees). They
also mention deprivation of career support, mentoring and a feeling of having worse chances
of being involved in major projects. Two different types of isolation, company and colleague
isolation, are suggested. Company isolation refers to the employee’s feeling of not receiving
enough career-based support and mentoring from supervisors and the organization in general.
It is negatively correlated to organizational commitment. Low organizational commitment
may then lead to decreased quality of job performance.
However, telework does not necessarily lead to feelings of isolation and separation from
colleagues and supervisors. A study by Gajendran and Harrison (2007) found no negative
consequences of telecommuting on the relationship to colleagues and even positive
consequences for the relationship to supervisors. A recent online survey among mobile
teleworkers by Paridon and Hupke (2008) found that most of the participants have
possibilities for social interaction and receive social support from colleagues during their
work and evaluate these opportunities positively. As many mobile teleworkers have regular
face-to-face contact with customers when away from the company’s premises it may be
61
assumed that for this group of employees, isolation is less of a problem than for home-based
teleworkers.
To prevent feelings of isolation regular meetings may be necessary. Teleworkers should be
encouraged to take part in important company events and there might be fixed times when the
employee is required to work in the office, for example, one day per week. Some companies
also use regular virtual team meetings or virtual team work to give teleworking employees the
feeling of being integrated (European Foundation for the Improvement of Working and
Living Conditions, 2007).
Possibilities of control: supervision/leadership
The task of managing employees with portable computing and communication devices is very
different from managing office-based workers. As the possibility of direct supervision is
generally either small or non-existent when only little time is spent on the company’s
premises, other ways to ensure support, mentoring and supervision must be utilised.
One factor being studied in this context is the importance of trust between employer and
employee. Mulki et al. (2008) report studies which found that trust increases an employee’s
ability to cope with organizational stressors, fosters organizational commitment and enhances
job satisfaction. In virtual working conditions trust is especially important as supervisors
generally do not have direct control over their teleworking employees. Trust can be increased
by creating more opportunities for communication and informal networking, for example,
through regular meetings or the implementation of regular office work days.
Telecommuting can even lead to feelings of an improved employer-employee relationship as
shown in a study by Gajendran and Harrison (2007). Trust might play a very important role
when these relationships develop in such positive directions.
Supervisors also have to be aware that employees can face problems when operating as
mobile teleworkers. For example, it has been found that salespeople in remote offices needed
their supervisor’s help to impose structure on their daily activities (Mulki, 2008). Employees
working in a mobile mode for significant amounts of time should, therefore, be well prepared
for what to expect and their work should be discussed with their supervisor regularly. This, of
course, largely depends on the position and the abilities of the mobile worker.
There is consensus that telework in general can only be effectively realized with leadership
that makes use of management by results or objectives (Illegems et al., 2001, Hörmann,
2000). In mobile work, goals such as time limits may help workers to structure their work,
which might otherwise be too long or too much (Richter et al., 2007). The goals agreed on
make it easier for the employer or supervisor and the employee to know each others’
expectations and capabilities, especially when large parts of working-time take place outside
of the company’s premises. Thus goal setting also serves as a control measure.
Figure 16 shows results from a survey conducted by Clear and Dickson (2005) explaining
how work is controlled in a sample of 300 small and medium-sized enterprises in five
European countries. They suggest that companies practising direct supervision would first
need to introduce other methods of control before introducing telework.
62
Figure 16: Different forms of control in small and medium-sized enterprises
How is work controlled
45
30
t
er cenp
15
0
Direct
Automated Work done to
Individual
Team Goals Other means
Supervision recording of
specif ied
Goals
performance
deadlines
Source: Clear & Dickson, 2005.
However, technical opportunities for direct control in telework also exist, such as a permanent
demand for data transmission, time sheets or even the use of Global Positioning System
(GPS) to trace employees’ movements (Broughton, 2008). Working times and the contents of
technical devices could also be recorded or telephone calls might be traced. However, these
activities decrease the employee’s freedom and may destroy feelings of trust for the mobile
teleworker. A lack of intrinsic motivation will most likely develop from such measures, so
careful consideration must be given to the necessity of such measures and whether they are
more important than the intrinsic motivation arising from greater freedom of action (Schulte,
1999).
Supervisors also have to make sure that the work of their teleworking employees is evaluated
and that they receive feed-back and reward in the same manner as office-based workers.
These employees should have the feeling that they are considered for important assignments
and that their achievements are reported to upper management lest they face the risk of a
gratification crisis as proposed by the Effort-Reward-Imbalance Model developed by Siegrist
(1996). According to the model, employees face an increased risk of physical or mental ill-
health when significant effort at work is not rewarded adequately. It is also important to
involve mobile teleworkers in company decisions. Generally mobile teleworkers evaluate
having a voice in company matters as positive while those who are not involved in company
decisions evaluate this negatively (Paridon & Hupke, 2008).
63
1.1.4 Operational and societal conditions
Work place insecurity
In a study by the Confederation of German Trade Unions (DGB) (Fuchs, 2008, Brandt &
Brandl, 2008), mobile workers reported higher feelings of job insecurity. The reasons for this
higher insecurity have not yet been clearly identified but high stress levels may lead to a
perception of not being able to carry on under the prevailing working conditions until
retirement. Also a lack of access to informal information as previously described might give
employees the feeling that their work is not being sufficiently appreciated.
1.1.5 Personal influences
Employee characteristics
Mobile telework places special demands on the employee. As mobile teleworkers mostly have
to structure their work days and arrange appointments on their own, an ability to self-organize
is essential (figure 17).
Figure 17: Answers from mobile ICT users
The demand to organise my work by myself is high
100
80
Per cent
54.3
60
38.4
40
20
2.3
5.0
0
Never
Sometimes
Often
Always
Source: Paridon & Hupke, 2008.
Employees applying for a mobile position should, therefore, be carefully selected. They
should also be thoroughly informed regarding what to expect and questioned as to whether the
autonomous, self-organized working style necessary for such positions is compatible with
their way of working (Hörmann, 2000).
The employees should also be introduced to the psychosocial risk factors arising from mobile
work and be enabled to handle specific stressors. Relevant training for the employee as well
as for the employer is therefore important when mobile work using portable computing and
communication devices is introduced in a company.
Employees must also be able to cope with longer periods of isolated working, an ability which
largely depends on the personality of an employee. This aspect should be discussed
thoroughly as an inappropriate deployment might even result in depression.
64
1.2 Risks of illness and accidents deriving from psychosocial stressors
The stressors described in the previous section generally have the potential to cause not only
stress but also other forms of negative psychosocial strain, such as fatigue or mental
saturation. When chronic, over months or years, these strain factors bear the risk of causing
illness. The illnesses that are primarily discussed in relation to psychosocial stress are
coronary disease (Öhlin et al, 2004), back pain, sleep disturbances and impairment of the
immune system (Jones & Bright, 2001). These observations are supported by theoretical
models such as the above-mentioned Effort-Reward-Imbalance Model developed by Siegrist
(1996) and the Vitamin Model developed by Warr (1987). The latter model proposes nine
psychosocial stressors, some of which may have a negative impact on health in excessive
doses, as in the case of vitamins A and D. Examples of such negative impacts are: control
opportunities, variety of work tasks or interpersonal contact. Other psychosocial stressors may
not be harmful to health even when present in very high doses and thus comparable with
vitamins C and E. Examples of such factors are physical safety and social status.
Accidents caused by psychological stressors are mainly the subject of cognitive ergonomics
and will be discussed in the next chapter. Of course high levels of psychosocial stress may
lead to a lack of attention and therefore increase the risk of an accident. Up to now there seem
to be no data regarding the frequency of illnesses and accidents specifically among mobile
workers.
1.3 Psychosocial implications for the proposed future development in work using
portable computing and communication devices
From a psychosocial perspective, a major concern for the future development of portable
computing and communication devices is its spread, which forces more and more employees
to work at least partially in a mobile mode and which is connected with the above mentioned
risk factors. When companies increase the number of mobile staff they will have to recruit
them from a pool less obviously suited to the task and must therefore take greater care when
choosing and preparing these employees for this type of work. Companies also must
reconsider their management and communication strategies in general and adjust them for
mobile work.
New technical developments may bring opportunities as well as risks. Virtual communication
techniques which offer ways to communicate which are very similar to real face-to-face
communication may be applied to facilitate information exchange. Moreover, having been
accustomed to it from an early age, the younger generation may view technical means of
communication more positively and therefore experience less difficulty and strain when
communicating virtually in their future jobs. On the other hand, the workers and their work
may be monitored by technical equipment, which may be assessed negatively. New
technology can also overstrain its operators when it is too complicated. On the other hand,
devices which are designed ergonomically will facilitate work.
65
1.4 Demographic effects
The psychosocial consequences of work with portable computing and communication devices
and the ageing workforce
As mentioned in the introduction to this chapter, there is only a very small amount of
scientific research into the psychosocial effects of mobile telework. The specific
consequences for older mobile teleworkers have been investigated even less. The advantages
and disadvantages of mobile ICT for older workers are discussed by Charness (2006). These
include decreases in specific cognitive functioning such as speed of perception and short-term
memory. As these factors refer to aspects of usability they will be covered in the next chapter.
However, no explicit reference is made to specific psychosocial outcomes for mobile telework
so only general experiences can be reported. The Risk Observatory of the European Agency
for Safety and Health at Work (2007) states that in older workers several decreases in ability
are countered by certain increases. Some of these results can be transferred to mobile
telework. For instance, older people are more independent in their decision making and have
more experience in their work, which increases their ability to work autonomously. This may
even result in lower stress levels due to task insecurity than in younger workers. It is also
reported that older people have a greater sense of responsibility and duty, which may help to
establish trust and an efficient exchange of information between older mobile teleworkers and
their supervisors. Older people can generally also assess their abilities and limitations more
realistically. Thus in mobile telework they might be better able to structure their working days
according to their needs and abilities and not overstrain themselves.
Older mobile teleworkers reported significantly less support from colleagues than did younger
mobile teleworkers (Paridon & Hupke, 2008). It can be assumed that these older workers are
more reluctant to ask others for help, which would generally be a disadvantage for mobile
work.
From a psychosocial perspective there is no reason to believe that older workers are generally
less suited to mobile telework.
The psychosocial consequences of work with portable computing and communication devices
and the increasing proportion of women in the workforce
From a psychosocial perspective women may experience higher stress in mobile telework
when they are also the primary care giver in a family. This is still very common even in
Western European and American families where fathers generally do not engage as much in
child care and external child care is still rare and expensive. If women do mobile work they
may suffer from mental stress that develops from organizing child care during their absence
and worrying about their children’s well-being. Family duties are probably one of the main
reasons why women are underrepresented in mobile telework involving staying away from
home overnight. Another reason is the fact that the majority of mobile teleworkers who stay
away overnight are managers or professionals (Garrett, Danziger, 2007), still categories where
women are underrepresented.
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1.5 Expert interviews
The expert interviews are intended to supplement the results from the review of literature with
practical findings from the work of experts on projects concerning work with portable
computing and communication devices. The following experts answered questions in a
standardised interview.
Cornelia Brandt works for Ver.di, the German trade union for the service sector. She started
to investigate the consequences of telework in the nineties and then shifted her focus to
mobile work. She has worked in several projects on the topic (OnFormA, PaPsD, Index “Gute
Arbeit”).
Pekka Huuhtanen is a research professor and team leader at the Finnish Institute of
Occupational Health: Work Organizations Changes and Future Work. Since 1995, he has
been the coordinator of a European project on health and safety in telework covering 15 EU
Member States. Two articles by him on telework and eWork have been published on the
website of the European Agency for Safety and Health at Work.
Dagmar Siebecke is a scientific project leader at the Faculty of Business and Social Sciences
at the University of Dortmund (Germany). She took part in a project co-financed by the
European Union and the German Ministry for Education and Science. The project is called
PRAGDIS and aims at collecting scientific knowledge on occupational safety and the
prevention of disease in discontinuous career histories. One form of work being investigated
in the project is mobile work.
Piet van Lingen and Friso van der Meulen work at TNO Hoofddorp, in the Netherlands. They
have worked on mobile data terminals in police cars and the project “Distance Working”, a
four year research program that started in 2003.
Additional results
Many risks and resources named by the experts confirmed the results from the literature and
will not be quoted again. Particular risks such as social isolation, lack of supervision and
leadership, increased work load and intensity and work/family conflict were named. The
following aspects mentioned by the experts have not been considered in the literature
analysis.
When employees do mobile work they may have, and take, fewer opportunities to delegate
tasks to specialized colleagues and thus be forced to work more than office-based colleagues
to fulfil such tasks. Examples of this are correspondence with clients, processing of data or the
search for particular information requested by a customer.
If the level of mobile work in jobs increases in the future there is the risk that work-family
conflicts will increase. Parents, especially, will have great difficulty taking care of their
children when both mother and father have jobs that require mobility, especially when this
includes staying away overnight. The topic has not yet been a subject of intense discussion.
The question is whether employers should be encouraged to assist employees to continue
working by providing the opportunity for in-company child care. Working times could be
arranged according to the needs of employees with children. It could be argued that a solution
is best left to the employees themselves but apart from increased stress levels and financial
67
demands for child care this might lead to a lack of equality. If one parent is forced to quit the
job, it is highly likely to be the woman in accordance with current gender roles. Therefore,
official regulations or at least recommendations might be a solution.
Mobile work using portable computing and communication devices not only bears the risk of
longer working hours but may even lead to workaholism.
It has also been observed that due to lack of time, supervisors discuss topics with their mobile
employees on the phone or per e-mail which would be better discussed in a face-to-face
situation. Typical topics of this nature are employment contracts and other personnel matters.
It was also suggested that mobile workers should receive more support from transport
companies when they work while travelling. For example, companies could provide more
lounges with higher seating capacities in stations and airports.
It is expected that the concepts of “just-in-time” production will be transferred to the service
sector because of pressure to meet customers’ needs and be available for customers at short
notice. This will increase the demand for faster work and put higher levels of strain on mobile
employees.
1.6 Conclusions
Generally, there has been little scientific research on work using portable computing and
communication devices. However, by taking knowledge and experience from related forms of
work it is possible to identify the main psychosocial risk factors and resources. The main
sources of strain in this kind of work are factors arising from work organization such as
flexibility, working time, communication barriers and the work-life balance. In accordance
with this result, measures to improve working conditions and lower psychosocial risk should
concentrate particularly on this field, without losing sight of other factors which may also be
important.
The employer and the organization appear to have significant influence on the working
conditions of their mobile employees even if they only rarely supervise them directly. In
general, the effect of psychological factors often depends on their degree. Where factors may
have either a positive or a negative effect, working conditions should be designed to ensure
positive consequences.
The diversity of mobile work is tremendous and this should be considered when
psychological factors are investigated. It may, for example, make a considerable difference
whether someone works as an employee or is self-employed.
The following recommendations for the prevention of risks in work using portable computing
and communication devices can be derived from the study:
· It should be ensured that, when starting to be mobile for a significant part of their work,
employees are able to organize themselves and their workload.
· Employees should be introduced to the main psychological risks of mobile work and be
trained to detect, and if possible handle, psychosocial stressors.
68
· Employees should have regular opportunities for face-to-face contact with their colleagues
and supervisors to exchange information.
· Management by objectives has proven to be a very helpful approach to the supervision of
mobile workers.
· Employees should have the possibility to take breaks from permanent availability.
· Employees should learn about the risks of being permanently available and learn to take
breaks where possible.
· Employees should be thoroughly familiarised with their technical devices and have
constant access to technical support.
· Employees should receive regular feed-back on their achievements.
· A trusting relationship should be established between supervisor and employee before
mobile work is begun.
· The employee should always have the possibility to delegate tasks to colleagues at the
company’s premises to prevent overload.
· The problem of child care should not be seen as a solely private matter. Both companies
and politicians should discuss possible support.
69
2. Ergonomic risk factors
Summary
This chapter deals with task 2b of the study (assessment of the OSH risks – ergonomic
risk factors) and analyses the literature on the following subjects:
· Manual handling issues due to the compromise that must be accepted in terms of usability
when designing portable devices and bearing in mind that they will sometimes be used in
cold environments or situations that result in poor posture;
· Repetitive movements, especially involving pinch-grip, which may lead to repetitive
strain injury;
· Poor visual interface due to small display screens and controls, together with problems
arising from reflective glare or an insufficient level of ambient light;
· Excessive noise levels due to high volume settings to compensate for background noise;
· Static and/or poor posture due to the use of the devices in an unsuitable environment;
· Cognitive load resulting in a risk of accident – e.g. when driving or as a pedestrian
crossing the road.
The analysis also includes an explanation of how the literature search was conducted.
On the basis of the data found, no thorough assessment of the above mentioned risk factors
can be provided. It is possible only to make assumptions regarding their impact and to
identify and highlight fields of interest for further research. Wherever information is
available, the contexts of an ageing workforce and greater participation of women is
considered. In addition, as far as the data analysis allows the review addresses the question of
how the nature and extent of these risks will change with possible developments in the
technology and its use.
Introduction
After a brief description of the variety of types of portable systems presently in use, this
chapter gives an overview of current research into the hazards presented by these systems and
the risks of ill health and accidents for workers. To this end, an analysis of publications was
conducted, involving various types of database. For the web search a set of search engines
were used (see table 9). In addition, the in-house database ZIGUV (Zentrales
Informationssystem der Gesetzlichen Unfallversicherung) of the DGUV (German Statutory
Accident Insurance) and the FIZ-Technik databases TEMA and INSP were searched.
Table 9: Search engines used for the web search
Google
http://www.google.de
Yahoo
http://www.yahoo.com
ScienceDirect
http://www.sciencedirect.com
Ergoweb
http://www.ergoweb.com/news/detail.cfm?id=1672
Scirus
http://www.scirus.com/srsapp/advanced/index.jsp?q1=
NetbibWiki
http://wiki.netbib.de/coma/AufsatzRecherche
Workrite Ergonomics
http://www.workriteergo.com/ergonomics/articles.asp
Gigablast
http://www.gigablast.com/
70
ASK
http://de.ask.com/#subject:ask|pg:1
Directory of open access http://www.doaj.org/
journals
Karlsruhe Virtual Catalogue
http://www.ubka.uni-karlsruhe.de/kvk.html
Google Scholar
http://scholar.google.de/
Table 10 lists the search terms, which were used in different combinations and variations.
Table 10: Keywords used for the web search
Usability of mobile devices
Mobile/portable devices
Cognitive ergonomics
Portable IT/Information technology
Communication device
Laptop, handheld, mobile phone, PDA,
Occupational health and safety
Safety at work
Small display
Ergonomic risks of handheld devices
Risk of handheld devices
Usability mobile devices
Usability mobile communication solutions
Ergonomic risks handling mobile IT devices
Mobile devices problems in application
Handling
Risk, health risk
Multitasking
Deviation, defection, avocation, distraction, diversion
This procedure led to a collection of 61 scientific and non-scientific articles. Overall, there are
as yet few reports on specific risk factors such as noise, use in cold environments, repetitive
movements or low levels of ambient light with a special focus on PSs. Consequently, there is
still a great deal of research to be done on this issue. However, research findings for fixed or
stationary workplaces can, for the most part, be applied to PSs as well. This chapter therefore
brings together:
1) Current research findings with a specific focus on PSs;
2) Research findings based on stationary and instant workplaces but which allow predictions
to be made regarding the impact of working with PSs.
As the research findings are broadly applicable to the whole field of mobile work, a rather
general approach is taken here. The literature is analysed with respect to the risk factors
addressed. Then, a description of the risk factors and an assessment in the context of mobile
work is attempted. Wherever applicable, the review also highlights the influence of age and
gender on these risks, as well as the changes likely to take place as the technology and its use
are developed and improved.
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2.1 The effects of biomechanical workload
While operating a PS on the move, biomechanical load may arise from manual handling,
repetitive movements or static and/or poor posture.
As indicated in an earlier chapter “Overview of the technology and its use”, there are various
portable systems (PSs) with different specifications in use. The use of the PS in the field
depends mainly on the task to be performed with it. These tasks are often determined by
professions or professional categories. This must be taken into account when attempting to
identify and assess possible health problems due to the ergonomic risk factors of PS use.
Firstly, the use of laptops by white-collar workers is considered. Where they are utilised by
workers performing office, administrative, sales or managerial tasks, the ergonomic risk
factors seem to be similar to those attached to stationary VDU workstations. While in most
cases the tasks are the same at stationary and instant workplaces, the ergonomic risk factors
are likely to be aggravated in instant workplaces due to the constant use of laptops in a
sometimes unsuitable environment and without time limits controlled by workflow
procedures. The postures adopted are presumed to be worse than at a stationary workplace
because a desk top of adequate height may be missing, no suitable seating may be available
and, due to the physical design of a laptop, the keyboard cannot be freely positioned. Thus,
the impact of repetitive movements may be higher and may further increase due to overtime
work and the absence of breaks. Vickery (2000), in fact, found that the use of laptops leads to
an increasing number of complaints of musculoskeletal problems. The musculoskeletal
problems of 508 respondents from a random sample of 626 staff, 40 % of whom use laptops
during their office-based, manufacturing or home-based occupations, were surveyed (Mc
Atamney, 2001): “83% of the sales force, who used laptops, reported one or more
musculoskeletal disorders and 14 % of those who used a laptop for more than one hour a day
reported significantly higher levels of elbow pain (p<0.05). Additionally, 72 % of employees
who used the laptop for four hours or more a day reported a significant increase in back pain
(p<0.05) compared to those who used it less often. There was a higher level of lower back
pain in the laptop users (59 %) compared to the rest of the sample (49 %), which included
industrial staff who undertook manual handling operations.”
In order to tackle problems like these, Mc Atamney (2001) and other authors (i.e. Dreier &
Feder (2001), van Harten (2007), Heegner (2007)) tried, as far as possible, to apply the
ergonomic recommendations of Council Directive 90/270/EEC of 29 May 1990 to the use of
laptops, and include them in the minimum health and safety requirements for work with
display screen equipment (fifth individual Directive within the meaning of Article 16 (1) of
Directive 89/391/EEC) and the German Health and Safety Regulations for Working with
VDU Equipment (”Bildschirmarbeitsverordnung”). To enable employees to follow ergonomic
rules when arranging their PS and all the peripheral equipment as closely as possible at any
place, it is proposed to teach ergonomics in specific situations; e.g. laptop use in the
classroom, whilst travelling etc. Decisions on additional equipment to help overcome difficult
conditions should be made on a case by case basis. This means, for example, that if the space
available on a work surface is very limited, it may be advisable to use a trackball instead of a
mouse (Keller Chandra et al. (2008)). However, despite the input devices built into laptops,
the use of a mouse as a pointing and input device whenever possible is recommended on the
basis of both best performance test results and subjective usability ratings (Baldus & Patterson
(2008), Sutter et al. (2008)).
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Aside from musculoskeletal load caused by poor posture, another health risk attached to
laptops has been identified. The term “laptop” suggests that notebook computers are designed
to be positioned on the lap. In his study, Shenykin (2004) proves that such a mode of
operation causes a significant rise in scrotal temperature as a result of heat exposure and
posture-related effects, i.e. closing the thighs to comfortably balance the notebook computer
on the lap. Since scrotal hyperthermia has been identified as a risk factor for male infertility,
the use of notebook computers positioned on the lap should be avoided. Further studies of
such thermal effects on male reproductive health are warranted because long-term exposure to
laptop-related repetitive transient scrotal hyperthermia is a modern lifestyle feature.
Therefore, the possible negative impact upon spermatogenesis, specifically in teenage boys
and young men, ought to be assessed.
Secondly, it is necessary to examine the attitude of workers who perform manufacturing,
maintenance or technical support tasks with laptops and other PSs. Even though ICT devices,
in particular personal computers, have become part of nearly everybody’s everyday life, some
people remain relatively unfamiliar with these technologies. Workers performing office or
administrative tasks are commonly used to, and trained in, computer work as part of their
jobs, but workers performing manufacturing or technical support tasks often have to learn
computer skills before they can benefit from PSs in their working environment. They may feel
the mental workload and time pressure growing while they try to apply newly gained
knowledge to the performance of habitual tasks. At the same time, computer novices will no
doubt find it more complicated to lay out an “ergonomic instant VDU workstation” on their
own. These circumstances may explain certain reservations towards laptop and other PSs use
on the part of this group of workers (Bowden et al. (2003)). It is well known that all these
factors may act together to increase the biomechanical load on the musculoskeletal system.
Current research focuses not only on technical problems, like small screen size, short battery
life or limited memory (Pettit & Kukulska-Hulme, 2007), or hardware limitations, like slow
and unreliable network connections, limited data transfer or slower CPUs (Johansson, 2006),
but also simultaneously addresses ergonomic issues.
According to Jøssund (2006), typing on a handheld device is extremely difficult unless a
keyboard is attached. She also states that handwriting recognition software requires users to
be trained in specific writing styles, such as block letters, etc. Mekelburg (2005) focuses on
adaptable keyboards for fast data entry on mobile devices. He compares current typing
systems like the phone pad system, mini- QWERTY and FASTAP, touchscreen with stylus
and the thin or half QWERTY. The author makes several demands on the input devices. The
keyboard should:
· allow fingers to be placed in a natural position;
· provide buttons which are easy and comfortable to press;
· allow for a large range of natural movements;
· improve mobile text entry;
· be easy to store;
· be usable with either hand;
· be usable on its own, i.e. without additional devices;
· be able to be interfaced to any device;
· be robust/rugged enough to endure rough handling;
· be weather resistant.
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Schülke (2003) surveys the use of PSs in an industrial context. He also requires PSs to allow
fingers to be placed in a natural position, to provide emergency stop switches and to possess
switches which are easy and comfortable to press and to be usable with either hand. Skourup
(2001), too, shows the relevance of well designed mobile workplaces in automation and
industrial applications. She notices that the choice and design of mobile workplaces is not
always adapted to the needs of the mobile worker. Although the interface and software are to
assist mobile workers in fulfilling their tasks, they are rarely involved in the process of
selecting and designing the technical equipment. Therefore, Skourup recommends that PSs in
industrial settings should:
· allow hands-free operation;
· fulfil the requirements of data and information access;
· provide specific solutions for communication;
· be adequate for the prevailing environmental conditions.
Bowden et al. (2003) show the application of PSs on construction sites. As the construction
site is a tough environment with sunlight, rain, mud and heavy handling, PSs have to meet
high demands. The authors make clear that the user’s preference or the suitability of a certain
PS depends on the specific tasks to be performed. Participants preferred PDAs (Personal
Digital Assistants) for inspection test sheets. Robust PDAs and PDA phones were preferred
for statement and diary tasks and PDA phones for drawing tasks. Remarkably, 88% of the
participants confirmed that they were happy to use one of these devices for their work, which
shows the benefits of PSs in the working environment.
In conclusion, researchers commonly consider the ability to hold a device easily in one hand
as an advantage. This is irrespective of the specific application or conditions of use (see e. g.
Wilson & Landoni, 2003; Mekelburg, 2005; Schülke, 2003 or Skourup, 2001). Since both
hands are required for keyboard input and placement, Zhu et al. (2002) consider pen-based
interfaces on PSs as more suitable for fieldwork environments as the user typically stands
whilst operating other devices.
According to Schedlbauer and Heines (2007), there have been few studies on the effects on
interaction with mobile computing devices and task performance when the user is moving,
e.g. walking slowly. They identify target selection, swiping, scrolling and drag/drop as typical
actions when dealing with these PSs. They call for statistical data to guide designers of
desktop-oriented devices in a mobile work context. The aspects of task interference are
examined later in this chapter in the section on effects of cognitive load and multiple task
situations.
When considering static and poor posture resulting from using a PS in an unsuitable
environment or from working in an improperly installed instant workplace, research findings
always recommend the reduction of weight and the provision of special installation and
transportation aids (s. von Harten, 2007). Mc Atamney (2001) clearly states that the human
body is not designed to be positioned in front of a monitor for most of the working day. In her
case study of a 24-year-old female mobile worker she discovered that the participant’s neck,
shoulder, back and hand postures were contributing to overloading the musculoskeletal
system. After three months she noticed pain in the right palm and hand, and after five months
the symptoms had been diagnosed as carpal tunnel syndrome.
Since the mobile phone is a crucial device for most mobile workers, the consequences of its
use, i.e. resulting ergonomic risk factors, will be mentioned here as well. Chany et al. (2007)
74
investigated the effect of mobile phone design on upper extremity discomfort and muscle
fatigue. Their findings show that participants with more abduction strength, wider palms, and
broader thumbs had increased mean discomfort in the neck and shoulder when dealing with
small clamshell phones. Small clamshell phones generally increased hand discomfort and
thenar muscle fatigue during use, while the grip style contributed to the development of
discomfort and muscle fatigue by changing muscle length.
Baber (2001) focuses on weight and locations for displays when studying portable computers
with respect to human factors. He investigated PSs applied in vehicle inspection, aircraft or
warehouse work in an exemplary manner. Basically, the human body can carry loads on the
head, the shoulders or the back. Apparently, on-body equipment can have an effect on posture
and mobility, and there are potential physical effects of carrying such loads. Baber suggests
that the total equipment weight should not exceed 30 % of the total body weight of the user
and proposes the forearm as an alternative location for the display of a PS. The forearm is
considered as an appropriate place to mount devices, and the torso a poor one to position
pointing devices. Although there is a lack of statistical data and experimental studies,
researchers and consultancies such as “ergonomicofficeTM” recommend short breaks because
these are deemed beneficial for eyes, neck, shoulders, arms, hands and fingers.
2.2 Effects of the visual interface design
Several authors (e.g. Kiper (2007), Dreier & Feder (2001), von Harten (2007) and Heegner
(2007)) apply the German Health and Safety Regulations for Working with VDU Equipment
(”Bildschirmarbeitsverordnung”) to mobile working contexts, especially for the use of
notebooks. In conclusion, and for this working context, their recommendations are similar:
high resolution, sufficient font and icon sizes and flicker-free displays. Experimental studies,
e.g. by Alexander et al. (2007), highlight the necessity of adequate icon and font size for data
entry tasks using PSs.
According to Laur (2002), contrast is the crucial criterion for the legibility of a display. And
because anisotropic liquid or liquid crystals in TFT displays are temperature sensitive, he pays
special attention to the mobile working context. The ideal temperature for the functioning of
the anisotropic liquid is 25°C. Deviation may lead to malfunction. He therefore recommends
special design features in PS displays, such as back lighting. Wilson & Landoni (2003) agree
with Laur and propose display technology with high resolution, high contrast, minimal glare
and backlighting for mobile applications. Wu et al. (2007) compare a PDA (3.5 inch diagonal
TFT-LCD screen), an e-book reader (6.5 inch diagonal SSCT-LCD screen) and a Notebook
computer (14.1 inch diagonal TFT-LCD screen) for prolonged reading tasks. In the first
instance, users still prefer printed books to e-books. Thus, the authors assert that the latter
need to be well designed if they are to become widely accepted and used effectively. Their
results show that the type of display has a statistically significant effect on reading
performance, visual fatigue and user satisfaction. The PDA led to obvious visual fatigue after
the subjects had been reading for 100 minutes. Only when portability was considered did the
PDA have a significantly better rating than other PSs. All in all, the small size of screen was
identified as a key limitation to applying a PDA to prolonged reading tasks.
Finally, display size is also interrelated with the user’s ability to process information.
According to Zhu et al. (2002), screen size limitation causes input limitation to the user and,
conversely, output limitation of the PSs.
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2.3 Effects of excessive noise and vibration levels
There is hardly any research available on excessive noise levels or background noise in
working contexts with a special focus on PSs. Here, general statutory regulations or standards
could be consulted and applied.
However, Sundström & Khan (2008) noted the effect of constant lateral vibration on train
passengers’ ability to read and write. Their laboratory study involving 48 subjects reveals a
significant relationship between the tasks, vibration level and postural conditions. The
subjects reported greater difficulty while reading and writing on the table than while leaning
back. This may be of relevance for mobile workers in industrial contexts as well, because
critical vibration levels may be present here, due to machinery in the working environment.
2.4 Effects of cognitive load and multiple task situations
Richter et al. (2006 in J. H. Andriessen & M. Vartianen) provide an overview of the study of
modern mental workload and describe research into mental strain in the context of mobile
virtual work (for definitions see chapter II). With reference to “ISO 10075:1991 Ergonomic
principles related to mental work-load – General terms and definitions”, mental workload at
work and its consequences, such as mental fatigue or reduced vigilance, are examined.
Figure 18: Mental workload, mental strain, and consequences of mental strain
according to ISO EN 10 075
MENTAL WORKLOAD
External factors impinging upon the human being
MENTAL STRAIN
Immediate effects of mental workload within an individual
depending on their habitual and current preconditions
Consequences of mental strain
SHORT-TERM CONSEQUENCES
LONG-TERM CONSEQUENCES
Emerging during a workday: both positive (e.g.
Emerging over a longer period of time: both positive
flow, motivation) and negative consequences (e.g.
(e.g. increasing of skills) and negative (e.g. work
fatigue, monotony, satiation)
and stress-related diseases, unlearning of
knowledge and skills) consequences
Source: Paridon & Hupke, 2008.
When dealing with mental workload, the authors (chapter III on “Psychosocial Resources and
Risk Factors of the Increasing Use of Portable Computing and Communication Devices”)
consider, amongst other things, an intensive interaction with ICT tools compared to non-
virtual working situations. For this they assume higher levels of cognitive demands on mobile
workers.
Basically, the use of PSs during work in a mobile context can be considered from the
perspective of the so-called dual-task paradigm, in which users have to perform two tasks
simultaneously. Evidently, human processing resources are limited and shared and can be
76
subdivided into several classes. Different tasks may compete for the same information
processing resources in the brain. This commonly leads to task interference and performance
loss in either one of the tasks.
There is a variety of empirical research into dual-task trade-offs while driving. This gives an
initial insight into working conditions with PSs and provides transferable results concerning
cognitive distraction, inattention, increased reaction times and similar effects. The majority of
mobile phone-related car accidents in Japan and the United States occur during dialling,
receiving calls or during conversation (Lamble et al., 1999).
According to Lamble et al. (1999) and other general research findings, manipulating, looking
at and talking into a mobile phone can all increase the risk of a car crash. Findings by Brumby
et al. (2007) support this conclusion. Here, engaging in a secondary task, such as dialling on a
mobile phone while driving a car, has also been found to have a negative effect on driver
performance.
Chittaro & De Marco (2004) distinguish between different types of distraction. The general
withdrawal of attention means taking the eyes off the road or the critical target. This is due to
eyelid closure or glances away from the critical target. Selective withdrawal of attention
means “mind-off-the-road” due to daydreaming, for example. Finally, the biomechanical
interference indicates the reduction of the user’s ability to execute manoeuvres due to body
posture shifts or similar, e.g. when reaching for a mobile telephone or leaning over to see or
manipulate a device while driving. The latter type of distraction may be eliminated with the
help of technical solutions such as hands-free PSs, i.e. hands-free mobile phones in driving
situations. This cannot, however, reduce possible cognitive distractions which occur while
handling the PSs.
The scheduling of multiple tasks causes interference and often one task is temporarily
neglected in favour of another. For example, attention is taken from the primary task (driving)
while operating an in-vehicle navigation system, a PDA, or dialling on a mobile phone. A
potential cause is that a particular task, for instance the use of a particular PS is too difficult
and the mental workload increases to such an extent that the situation becomes unsafe, and
accidents can occur. Chen et al. (2008) examined the hypothetical benefits of in-built vehicle
input/output and display systems for so-called “nomadic” devices. Their study shows that the
interface developed reduces mental workload compared to using the “nomadic” devices
without such interface and results in less neglect of the driving task.
Alexander et al. (2007) also state that, when dealing with PSs and data entry in a mobile
context the task of moving is the primary task, which has to be performed in a safe manner.
This influences performance in the secondary task. People may potentially vary the extent to
which two tasks are interleaved. There is a strategic variability in multitasking behaviour,
because attention may be turned to a certain task less often while performing another task.
However, an increase in the total time to complete the task may be expected because of
frequent task interleaving.
Schedlbauer & Heines (2007) investigated interactions with PSs while walking. They
demonstrated interaction effects of walking and task performance when using a PS
corresponding to the effects of dual or multiple tasking described above. They cite research
findings that show that the difficulty of walking through an obstacle course influenced the
performance of the user with the PS. The main result was that participants noticeably slowed
down their walking speed when selecting targets on the PS display. Again, the results make
77
evident that there is a definite connection between selection performance and walking.
Several studies show the multitasking characteristics of specific working contexts. Wittenberg
(2005) illustrates the cognitive demands on mobile workers in automation and industrial
contexts. Here, maintenance and monitoring tasks require the simultaneous handling of
different processing and production facilities with PSs. Oulasvirta & Sumari (2007) also
examine managing multiple PSs in mobile working contexts. According to them the most
salient problems are:
· The physical effort required by various management tasks;
· Anticipating what data or function will be needed;
· Aligning these efforts with work, mobility, and social situations.
Participants in their study had to handle a smart phone, a laptop, a mobile phone and various
necessary accessories such as docking stations, chargers, headsets, cables, etc. The authors
show that having to synchronise different PSs requires careful cognitive effort. Therefore
users often prefer to use only one device. These results suggest that there may be value in
designing mobile devices that facilitate multitasking behaviour for mobile workers. Future
PSs may be sensitive devices such as so-called workload managers or peripheral displays
(Bruno, 2005), which facilitate synchronisation and the use of different working areas.
Apart from the effects of multiple tasking, the design of PSs’ menus and similar applications
may contribute to a user’s cognitive load as well. For example, Beier (2004) recommends that
basic applications be accessible with very few clicks. Zhu et al. (2002) refer to this type of
requirement as well. They claim that proper categorisation, fewer key-press actions, and better
visualisation can ease the use of wireless computing. Ziefle et al. (2006) show that a user’s
mental representation of how a technical device might be structured clearly affects
performance outcomes and may lead to disorientation within the menu. As seen in the section
on the effects of visual interface design, screen size may affect cognitive load as well. In this
context, Jøssund (2006) states that small screens should have shallow navigational hierarchies
in order to offer overview and transparent navigation.
2.5 Effects of Ageing
While examining the design of mobile phones for older users, Pattison & Stedmon (2006)
demonstrated that there are several ergonomic implications for the elderly. They describe the
effects of ageing on vision, hearing and motor function, which influence the interaction with
PSs and lead to special requirements for this user group. According to the authors, older
people require more light than younger ones to see the same level of detail. Most displays are
too small for the elderly. They also have difficulties with glare. As information processing
and long-term memory decline with age, a disproportionate increase in cognitive load caused
by multi-functional PSs could be expected in older users.
As a result, older users encounter a number of problems when interacting with PSs.
Aschersleben & Müsseler (2007) point out that task interference in dual-task situations is
especially critical for the elderly. Finally, Chittaro & De Marco (2004) show that this is
particularly crucial in driving tasks. Their findings prove that older drivers take longer to
respond to warnings on head-up-displays, to read maps in a simulator, to read maps on the
road and generally make more mistakes. In general, driving in “normal” conditions already
imposes a larger cognitive load on older drivers than on younger ones.
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2.6 Discussion and Conclusions
The preceding sections have given an overview of literature dealing with ergonomic risk
factors arising from the use of PSs. Ergonomic risk factors have been described in detail, and
recommendations or – sometimes tentative – guidelines derived, to be followed if adverse
health effects or the risk of accidents are to be avoided.
In fact, the number of relevant articles was relatively small and only few studies were
specifically concerned with biomechanical issues with a particular focus on PSs. This is also
true for environmental risk factors such as noise, vibration or low levels of ambient light. And
finally, no remarks on gender issues could be found in the articles selected. In most cases, the
studies deal with the examination of a certain PS device in use for mobile work. For this
reason and due to the scarce statistical data on the duration and extent of PS use in an
occupational environment (chapter II), research findings remain scattered. Therefore, further
research needs to be conducted to piece the puzzle together and to obtain a full picture.
But how could the difficulties of avoiding any unpredictable ergonomic pitfalls in all the
possible scenarios be overcome? How could general measures be taken to solve the problem
that PS devices often have to be tailored for specific tasks and the user population in terms of,
for example, ICT skills, age and gender?
As mentioned in the conclusions to chapter II and the section “Effects of biomechanical
workload”, a distinction between different professional categories or groups of workers seems
advisable. In addition to the different work environments of mobile eWorkers, these
categories allow for a differentiation in the intensity of PS use and of ICT skills in most cases.
Since the duration and intensity of PS use are crucial factors for biomechanical workload, the
workflow must be analysed (chapter III.1.1 on Psychosocial Resources and Risk Factors). Of
course, while differences in the various professional categories affect the total amount of
biomechanical and cognitive workload, they may also be helpful in determining the resources
that help users to cope with that workload.
Given the above, account should be taken of the likely development of technologies in the
future. As mentioned in chapter II, this development will probably lead to PSs designed for
communication tasks. Because of their smaller size and weight in comparison to those
designed for computing tasks, they are likely to reduce biomechanical load and be more
appropriate for supporting mobile work. It is also becoming apparent that there is a need for
user-centred design of mobile devices which limit the cognitive load for mobile workers.
Future PSs should, for example, facilitate multitasking behaviour. If computing tasks could
then be run on servers that are connected to those PSs via Internet or other networks, PSs
designed for computing tasks would no longer be needed. Therefore, the focus of research
activities in the field of work-related adverse health effects and accidents due to occupational
use of PSs on the move should be put on design criteria for PSs for communication purposes.
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IV Implications for the Management of OSH
In this section implications for the management of OSH for mobile IT-supported work are
investigated. The information collected in chapters II and III is analysed in terms of the
challenges that these and future developments pose to enterprises’ management of OSH.
The main problems and difficulties in applying “traditional” approaches to OSH management
to mobile IT-supported work are described, and possible solutions are illustrated.
Additionally, some consideration is given to whether the use of mobile communication and
computing devices leads to mobile workers being left out of collective agreements.
1. Difficulties in applying “traditional” approaches to OSH management
The Framework Directive on the introduction of measures to improve the safety and health of
workers at work (89/391/EEC) provides the basis for all an employer’s OSH activities. The
Directive is applicable to all sectors of activity, both public and private (Art. 2,1) with the
exception of certain specific public service activities, such as the armed forces and the police,
or to certain specific activities in the civil protection services (Art. 2,2). Thus, the Framework
Directive is applicable to all kinds of mobile IT-supported work covered by Art. 2,1.
In addition to general provisions on OSH, the Directive gives the employer certain specific
obligations regarding the management of safety and health at work as a process, e.g.:
· Prevention of occupational risks and provision of information and training, as well as
provision of the necessary organization and means (Art. 6,1);
· Responding to changing circumstances and aiming to improve existing situations (Art.
6,1);
· The duty to ensure the safety and health of workers in every aspect related to their work
(Art. 5,1);
· Observing the following general principles of prevention: (a) avoiding risks; (b)
evaluating the risks which cannot be avoided: (c) combating the risks at source (Art.
6,2).
On the one hand, these and other obligations are general enough to be applicable to the
management of OSH for all kinds of work with respect to Art. 2,1. On the other hand, they are
too general to provide specific measures and directives for the management of OSH for
mobile IT-supported work. To apply the general OSH provisions of the Directive to specific
work settings, the following key questions need to be answered:
i. Which are the domains of mobile IT-supported work that bear the highest risks for the
employee’s health at work?
ii. Which of these domains could be subject to the employer’s OSH management, and how?
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The answer to question (i) can be derived from the results of chapters II and III. The
following domains bear the main risks:
Table 11: High-risk domains in mobile IT-supported work
Domain
Risks
Task
Inv.
Technology
Miniaturisation of devices
1
New technologies (e.g. e-paper, wearable computers)
1
Poor visual interfaces
2a
*
Repetitive movements
2a
*
Work environment
Excessive noise levels
2a
Static and poor posture
2a
Cognitive overload
2a
Multitude of work-settings
1
Soaring mobility and micro-mobility
1
Work organisation
Increasing work-load
2b
*
Longer working hours
2b
*
Communication barriers
2b
*
Reduced access to information
2b
*
Permanent reachability
2b
*
Difficulties in leadership
2b
*
Working individual Dual use of devices (work, private)
1
*
Increased autonomy
2b
*
Necessity for self-management
2b
*
Lack of social support
2b
*
In order to answer question (ii), it is important to note that some of these domains contain
variable factors. However, only those factors which remain constant in different aspects of
work, so called invariants, can serve as the basis for OSH measures. For example, OSH
measures aimed at designing, and probably regulating, the work place are not feasible within
the context of mobile IT-supported work, since the workplace is variable (Kohn, 2008).
Difficulties in applying traditional approaches to OSH management may arise for three
reasons:
Firstly, only those factors in table 11 that are considered invariant (marked with an asterisk *)
may be subject to OSH management. A variable, i.e. unpredictably changing, factor may not
be managed by static directives. For factors which are variable under mobile IT-supported
work and cannot be managed company-wide, e.g. the work environment, it is only possible to
give guidelines and training to the employees on appropriate individual behaviour in certain
situations.
Secondly, variable factors may not be subject to OSH management because of their lack of
controllability. In general, the intended effect of each measure of any management discipline
is guaranteed only to the extent to which it can be controlled and monitored. In the case of
mobile IT-supported work, it would not be possible to effectively measure and monitor any
OSH measure that addressed a variable factor, e.g. place and time of work, or intrusion of
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work into private life. Since many of the traditional approaches to OSH management do
address the factors and domains that are variable under mobile IT-supported work, problems
with these approaches are inevitable.
Thirdly, as table 11 also indicates, most of the factors which are invariant and thus
susceptible to OSH management are within the domains of organisation and processes (see
also Kohn, 2006).
A glance at the OSH Framework Directive 89/391/EEC, which lists many issues from these
domains (see table 12 for examples) supports this observation. Difficulties in traditional OSH
management may arise from the traditional separation of sub-organisations within a company:
The OSH department usually does not deal with process management. The process
management department is primarily concerned with process efficiency and not good working
conditions, and the human resources department, which is responsible for education and
training, has little knowledge of every-day work processes and their specific impact on
employees’ health.
Table 12: Domains of some OSH Framework Directive issues
Issue
Article
Domain
Provision of information and training
6.1
Process
Design of work places
6.2 d)
Organisation
Choice of work equipment
6.2 d)
Technology
Choice of working and production methods
6.2 d)
Processes
alleviating monotonous work
6.2 d)
Processes
alleviating work at a predetermined work-rate
6.2 d)
Processes
adapting to technical progress
6.2 e)
Technology
appropriate instructions
6.2 i)
Processes
2. Exclusion from collective agreements due to mobility
Collective agreements between employers and their employees are an additional tool for
managing invariant concepts of work within an organisation for domains in which existing
directives and regulations:
· do not exist or are not applicable,
· need to be rendered more precisely.
For mobile IT-supported work, the most common issues subject to OSH management by
collective agreement are:
· the amount of working time,
· access to the organisation’s flow of information,
· inclusion in the organisational work flow.
The advantages of collective agreements as a tool for OSH management are their
individuality, flexibility, and their independence of existing directives. With collective
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agreements, aspects of mobile IT-supported work which are not covered by any directives can
be made accessible to OSH management.
The disadvantage of collective agreements is the potential exclusion of mobile employees due
to the insufficient controllability of such agreements in their case and the lack of clearly
defined responsibilities. A collective agreement on working time that works well within the
organisation is difficult to monitor for mobile workers, since there is no mechanism for
monitoring the specified working time for employees working outside the organisation.
Especially if the leadership model for these employees is based on management by objectives,
employees often tend to work overtime if the objectives have not been appropriately chosen.
In this case, the mobile employees are effectively excluded from this collective agreement.
Closely related to the unenforceability of collective agreements is the lack of clearly defined
responsibilities. If a collective agreement on, for instance, working time specifies that the
employer is responsible for compliance, the problem of monitoring would apply. If, on the
other hand, the employee is considered responsible, the obligation to provide appropriate
measures for OSH would be transferred from the employer to the employee.
Neither problem can be solved by implementing additional regulations, directives or
agreements. Instead, the solution may lie with an appropriate corporate culture with a
special focus on prevention.
3. Consequences and recommendations for practical OSH management
Due to its complexity, mobile IT-supported work needs holistic, and probably new, methods
of practical OSH management by the employer. Though far from comprehensive, the
following consequences and resulting recommendations may be viewed as a first approach.
· A company’s OSH management cannot manage all aspects of mobile IT-supported work
in detail, since there are factors which are highly variable, and thus simply not
manageable. As a consequence, the employer should:
o identify all relevant invariant aspects of mobile IT-work (e.g. devices, work-load,
communication structures) and establish appropriate measures based on the
relevant OSH Directives, scientific research results, and examples of good
practice;
o identify all relevant variable aspects of mobile IT-work (e.g. changing work-
settings, individual thresholds for cognitive and information overload, individual
preferences on work-life balance) and give guidelines and/or training to the
employer on appropriate individual behaviour based on scientific research results
and examples of good practice.
· Due to the complexity and multidimensionality of mobile IT-supported work an effective
OSH management within a company must deal with domains that are beyond the
traditional framework of OSH. Many issues are located within the domains of other
“managements” within the company, e.g. process management, human resources
management, health care management, quality management, or financial management.
Traditionally, each of these domains is represented by a specialised department, with well-
defined internal organisational boundaries. Thus, the employer should:
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o dissolve internal boundaries between those sub-organisations that in any way
contribute to the design of work and work processes;
o encourage cooperation between these units in order to holistically establish healthy
working conditions for the employees.
· Many OSH aspects of mobile IT-supported work may not be manageable or controllable
but have to be incorporated into a living culture, e.g. trust in, and appreciation of, the
employees. The employer should therefore:
o strive to establish a corporate OSH culture;
o establish human needs as one of its core values.
· OSH management for mobile IT-supported work has to be done holistically. However,
due to the complexity of this form of work OSH management cannot be established as a
whole in a single step. Instead,
o the implementation of OSH management for mobile IT-supported work should be
carried out in a process of several successive steps:
- prioritisation of domains and factors based on their impact on safety and health,
- selection of the most crucial factors,
- (re)design of the corresponding measures for OSH.
When these measures have been implemented, the process continues into its next cycle with a
repetition of the prioritisation and selection steps.
· In mobile IT-supported work the employee has influence on more aspects of work than in
“traditional” forms of work. Employers should take this into account in their OSH
management by:
o building awareness on the part of the employees of OSH aspects in their own
concerns;
o enabling the employees to make responsible use of their potential, e.g. by giving
them appropriate and individual training.
4. Conclusions
Mobile IT-supported work is considered hard to design and regulate for occupational safety
and healthy aspects. This is due to the fact that many aspects of work which are invariant in
traditional work settings become variable within mobile IT-supported work. OSH principles
and measures which are based on such factors thus are no longer applicable within this new
form of work. In this way, mobile IT-supported work confronts corporate OSH management
with new challenges. Many of the factors relevant for OSH in mobile IT-supported work are
located within the domains organisation and processes. OSH management, therefore, must
depart from its traditional approach of observing statutory restrictions and regulations for
safety at work. Instead it should facilitate a holistic approach in cooperation with other
organisational management disciplines. This seems to be the key factor in successfully
enabling occupational safety and health in mobile IT-supported work and thus protecting the
individual’s health.
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V Implications for regulation and enforcement
Summary
The questions to be answered in this part of the report concern the main challenges for
legislation and enforcement arising from the increasing use of portable computing and
communication devices and systems.
The existing European legislation was analysed against the background of the new
requirements arising in practice.
Several options for adapting the legislation and alternative solutions for coping with new and
future developments in this field are presented and discussed.
The main questions to be answered are:
· What are the new challenges presented by the growth in work with portable computing
and communication devices?
· To what extent is current OSH legislation able to ensure proper control of the risks?
· What are the options for legislation and enforcement to cope with the demands posed by
work with portable devices?
1. Challenges and possible approaches for legislation and enforcement
On the basis of the results from chapter II “Overview of the technology and its use”, chapter
III “Assessment of the OSH risks” and chapter IV “Implications for the Management of
OSH”, the main challenges are:
· Blurred boundaries between private and occupational use in terms of systems/devices and
time;
· Employer’s limited control of field work;
· Relative autonomy of field workers;
· Adaptation of prevention obligations to the accelerated pace of technical progress.
General solutions for regulation to be considered are:
· Changing/extending of existing obligations; concerns of the employer, concerns of the
employee.
· Binding obligations and/or recommendations.
· Are innovative approaches possible?
General approaches the authorities might follow are:
· Extending inspection to include work that involves the use of portable devices.
· Focussing on monitoring OSH management.
· More advice for employers and employees.
This short overview of the critical questions serves as a starting point for the analyses and the
development of options presented in the following chapters.
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The European Framework Directive on safety and health at work and its relevant daughter
directives: their application to work with portable computing and communication
devices.
Is the technology of portable ICT devices covered?
Are the risks adequately incorporated?
Are the requirements for OSH management considered?
1.1 OSH Framework Directive 89/391/EEC
The OSH Framework Directive “contains general principles concerning the prevention of
occupational risks, the protection of safety and health, the elimination of risk and accident
factors, the informing, consultation, balanced participation in accordance with national laws
and/or practices and training of workers and their representatives, as well as general
guidelines for the implementation of the said principles.” (Articles 1, 2)
This means that the OSH Framework Directive formulates the basic requirements for work
with portable ICT devices in every respect, as the following citations from the Directive will
demonstrate. Statements of particular relevance to work with portable ICT devices are
emphasized in bold by the author:
Art. 5, 1. The employer shall have a duty to ensure the safety and health of workers in every
aspect related to the work.
Art. 6, 1. … the employer shall take the measures necessary for the safety and health
protection of workers, including prevention of occupational risks and provision of
information and training, as well as provision of the necessary organization and means.
The employer shall be alert to the need to adjust these measures to take account of
changing circumstances and aim to improve existing situations.
Art. 6, 2. The employer shall implement the measures … on the basis of the following general
principles of prevention:
(a) avoiding risks;
(b) evaluating the risks which cannot be avoided;
(c) combating the risks at source;
(d) adapting the work to the individual, especially as regards the design of work places, the
choice of work equipment and the choice of working and production methods, with a view,
in particular, to alleviating monotonous work and work at a predetermined work-rate and to
reducing their effect on health.
(e) adapting to technical progress;
(f) replacing the dangerous by the non-dangerous or the less dangerous;
(g) developing a coherent overall prevention policy which covers technology, organization
of work, working conditions, social relationships and the influence of factors related to the
working environment;
(h) giving collective protective measures priority over individual protective measures;
(i) giving appropriate instructions to the workers.
Art. 6, 3. …, the employer shall, taking into account the nature of the activities of the
enterprise and/or establishment:
86
(a) evaluate the risks to the safety and health of workers, inter alia in the choice of work
equipment, … and the fitting-out of work places.
Application of the above requirements and obligations to the responsibilities of employers
concerning work with portable ICT devices
The employer shall have a duty to ensure the
The employer is fully responsible.
safety and health of workers in every aspect
No exception for any kind of work or
related to the work
workplace.
provision of the necessary organization and
OSH management must also be organized in a
means
manner which fulfils the implicit requirements
for work with portable devices.
The employer shall be alert to the need to adjust OSH measures must also comply with the
these measures to take account of changing
changing circumstances of mobile work
circumstances
The employer shall implement the measures … on
the basis of the following general principles of
prevention
(b) evaluating the risks which cannot be avoided; Mobile workers will inevitably encounter risks.
The employer must evaluate these risks
(d) adapting the work to the individual … the
Work must be adapted to the typically unique
choice of work equipment … the choice of
working conditions, including by means of
working … methods
appropriate portable ICT devices and their use
(e) adapting to technical progress;
The rapid pace of ongoing developments in
portable ICT technology must be given timely
consideration and anticipated before new
problems and risks arise
(g) developing a coherent overall prevention
Work with portable devices, typically
policy which covers technology, organization of extramural and during business travel, requires
work, working conditions, social relationships
companies to have a coherent overall
and the influence of factors related to the working prevention policy adapted to this kind of work.
environment;
(i) giving appropriate instructions to the workers Work with portable devices requires special
training and instruction of the workers in order
for awareness of health and safety risks to be
increased, for the risks to be managed, and also
for the devices and tools to be used correctly
and without stress
…, the employer shall, taking into account the
The employer must have access to an
nature of the activities of the enterprise …
evaluation which takes into account the nature
(a) evaluate the risks to the safety and health of of portable ICT devices and the activities in
workers
which they are used
It is clear that the OSH Framework Directive covers all risks and all forms of work, and that it
addresses the full breadth of obligations upon the employer. The requirements are applicable
to all specific aspects of work with portable devices. From this point of view, the OSH
regulations are comprehensive.
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1.2 Possibly relevant EU regulatory framework
Directive 90/270/EEC (work with display screen equipment) seems to rule itself out,
since:
“This Directive shall not apply to: … (d) 'portable' systems not in prolonged use at a
workstation;” (emphasis added by the author)
On the other hand, the following daughter directives may appear at first glance to be
applicable to the specific problems discussed with respect to work with portable ICT devices,
owing to their intended purpose:
Directive 89/655/EEC (use of work equipment by workers at work)
The purpose of this Directive is that of defining minimum requirements for work with
possibly dangerous work equipment such as machines, etc.
Directive 2003/10/EC (on risks arising from physical agents (noise))
“This Directive … lays down minimum requirements for the protection of workers from risks
to their health and safety arising or likely to arise from exposure to noise and in particular
the risk to hearing.” (emphasis added by the author). Risk to hearing posed by noise is not a
typical problem of work with portable ICT devices.
Directive 90/269/EEC (manual handling of loads where there is a risk particularly of
back injury to workers)
The purpose of this Directive is that of preventing back injuries to workers caused by the
manual handling of loads. Heavy loads are meant in this context and could be taken into
account only if a worker were to use a workstation computer as a portable ICT device.
Directive 2003/88/EC concerning certain aspects of the organisation of working time
“This Directive applies to:
(a) minimum periods of daily rest, weekly rest and annual leave, to breaks and maximum
weekly working time; and (b) certain aspects of night work, shift work and patterns of work.”
The Directive is in principle applicable to specific problems of work with portable devices
arising for example from long working hours during journeys and from ”mobile work”, which
is explicitly addressed in the Directive’s articles 2, 7 and 20. This means that employers must
pay special attention to the requirements of this Directive with respect to “adequate rest” for
their mobile workers.
However, after consideration of the details of the above directives, they appear – with the
exception of the general requirements for the organisation of working time – inapplicable to
the specific problems of work with portable ICT devices.
1.3 Directive 90/270/EEC (work with display screen equipment)
This Directive is also known under the title “VDU Directive” (Visual Display Unit Directive).
The VDU Directive was developed in the 1980s, when work with visual display units, for
instance in offices, rose sharply as a “new form of work”. It addressed the new challenges
from a technical, organisational and medical point of view. The creation of a dedicated
directive for this purpose appears to have been the correct decision.
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The VDU Directive is restricted to stationary workplaces, for which its annex, in particular, is
designed. Article 1, 3 states:
“This Directive shall not apply to:
(a) drivers' cabs or control cabs for vehicles or machinery;
(b) computer systems on board a means of transport;
(c) computer systems mainly intended for public use;
(d) 'portable' systems not in prolonged use at a workstation;
(e) calculators, cash registers and any equipment having a small data or measurement
display required for direct use of the equipment;
(f) typewriters of traditional design, of the type known as 'typewriter with window'.”
The conclusion is that work with portable devices is not covered by the VDU Directive.
However, if the details of this Directive are considered, one can see that although parts of the
Directive are not legally applicable, they apply in practice to work with portable devices. For
example:
“Article 3
Analysis of workstations
1. Employers shall be obliged to perform an analysis of workstations in order to evaluate the
safety and health conditions to which they give rise for their workers, particularly as regards
possible risks to eyesight, physical problems and problems of mental stress.
2. Employers shall take appropriate measures to remedy the risks found, on the basis of the
evaluation referred to in paragraph 1, taking account of the additional and/or combined
effects of the risks so found.”
“Article 6
Information for, and training of, workers
1. Without prejudice to Article 10 of Directive 89/391/EEC, workers shall receive information
on all aspects of safety and health relating to their workstation, in particular information on
such measures applicable to workstations as are implemented under
Articles 3, 7 and 9.
In all cases, workers or their representatives shall be informed of any health and safety
measure taken in compliance with this Directive.
2. Without prejudice to Article 12 of Directive 89/391/EEC, every worker shall also receive
training in use of the workstation before commencing this type of work and whenever the
organization of the workstation is substantially modified.”
“Article 8
Worker consultation and participation
Consultation and participation of workers and/or their representatives shall take place in
accordance with Article 11 of Directive 89/391/EEC on the matters covered by this Directive,
including its Annex.
Article 9
Protection of workers' eyes and eyesight
1. Workers shall be entitled to an appropriate eye and eyesight test carried out by a person
with the necessary capabilities:
- before commencing display screen work,
- at regular intervals thereafter, and
- if they experience visual difficulties which may be due to display screen work.
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2. Workers shall be entitled to an ophthalmological examination if the results of the test
referred to in paragraph 1 show that this is necessary.
3. If the results of the test referred to in paragraph 1 or of the examination referred to in
paragraph 2 show that it is necessary and if normal corrective appliances cannot be used,
workers must be provided with special corrective appliances appropriate for the work
concerned.
4. Measures taken pursuant to this Article may in no circumstances involve workers in
additional financial cost.
5. Protection of workers' eyes and eyesight may be provided as part of a national health
system.”
If we consider the annex of the VDU Directive as containing the “minimum requirements”, it
also applies in part to portable devices:
1. Equipment
Applicability of the
requirements from the VDU
Directive to work with
portable devices
Applicable
(a) General comment
The use as such of the equipment must not be a source of risk for
workers.
Applicable
(b) Display screen
The characters on the screen shall be well-defined and
clearly formed, of adequate size and with adequate spacing
between the characters and lines.
The image on the screen should be stable, with no flickering or
Applicable
other forms of instability.
The brightness and/or the contrast between the characters and the Applicable
background shall be easily adjustable by the operator, and also be
easily adjustable to ambient conditions.
The screen must swivel and tilt easily and freely to suit the needs Applicable
of the operator.
It shall be possible to use a separate base for the screen or an
Not applicable
adjustable table.
The screen shall be free of reflective glare and reflections liable to Applicable
cause discomfort to the user.
(c) Keyboard
The keyboard shall be tiltable and separate from the screen so as
to allow the worker to find a comfortable working position
Partly applicable
avoiding fatigue in the arms or hands.
Notebooks with detachable
keyboards are available
The space in front of the keyboard shall be sufficient to provide
Partly applicable*
support for the hands and arms of the operator.
The keyboard shall have a matt surface to avoid reflective glare. Applicable
The arrangement of the keyboard and the characteristics of the
Applicable
keys shall be such as to facilitate the use of the keyboard.
The symbols on the keys shall be adequately contrasted and legible Applicable
from the design working position.
90
(d) Work desk or work surface
Partly applicable*
The work desk or work surface shall have a sufficiently large, low-
reflectance surface and allow a flexible arrangement of the screen,
keyboard, documents and related equipment.
The document holder shall be stable and adjustable and shall be
positioned so as to minimize the need for uncomfortable head and
eye movements.
There shall be adequate space for workers to find a comfortable
position.
(e) Work chair
Partly applicable*
The work chair shall be stable and allow the operator easy
freedom of movement and a comfortable position.
The seat shall be adjustable in height.
The seat back shall be adjustable in both height and tilt.
A footrest shall be made available to any one who wishes for one.
2. Environment
(a) Space requirements
Partly applicable*
The workstation shall be dimensioned and designed so as to
provide sufficient space for the user to change position and vary
movements.
(b) Lighting
Partly applicable *
Room lighting and/or spot lighting (work lamps) shall ensure
comparable working
satisfactory lighting conditions and an appropriate contrast
conditions may be sought
between the screen and the background environment, taking into
account the type of work and the user's vision requirements.
Possible disturbing glare and reflections on the screen or other
equipment shall be prevented by coordinating workplace and
workstation layout with the positioning and technical
characteristics of the artificial light sources.
(c) Reflections and glare
Partly applicable *
Workstations shall be so designed that sources of light, such as
comparable working
windows and other openings, transparent or translucid walls, and conditions may be sought
brightly coloured fixtures or walls cause no direct glare and, as
far as possible, no reflections on the screen.
Windows shall be fitted with a suitable system of adjustable
covering to attenuate the daylight that falls on the workstation.
(d) Noise
Partly applicable *
Noise emitted by equipment belonging to workstation(s) shall be
taken into account when a workstation is being equipped, in
particular so as not to distract attention or disturb speech.
(e) Heat
Partly applicable *
Equipment belonging to workstation(s) shall not produce excess
heat which could cause discomfort to workers.
F )Radiation
Partly applicable *
All radiation with the exception of the visible part of the
electromagnetic spectrum shall be reduced to negligible levels
from the point of view of the protection of workers' safety and
health.
(g) Humidity
Partly applicable*
An adequate level of humidity shall be established and maintained.
91
3. Operator/computer interface
In designing, selecting, commissioning and modifying software,
and in designing tasks using display screen equipment, the
employer shall take into account the following principles:
(a) software must be suitable for the task;
(b) software must be easy to use and, where appropriate,
adaptable to the operator’s level of knowledge or experience; no Applicable
quantitative or qualitative checking facility may be used without
the knowledge of the workers;
c) systems must provide feedback to workers on their performance;
(d) systems must display information in a format and at a pace
which are adapted to operators;
(e) the principles of software ergonomics must be applied, in
particular to human data processing.
* Workplaces designed for work with portable systems are already or can be made available e.g. at railway stations and
airports.
All the above quotations show implementations of the Framework Directive for work with
visual display units. The employer can use also the VDU Directive as a guideline for state-of-
the-art application of the Framework Directive for work with portable devices with display
unit. This also includes the obligations for protection of workers' eyes and eyesight in Article
9 of the VDU Directive to comply with article 14 of the Framework Directive.
It should be mentioned that in at least two member states, the legal implementation of the
VDU Directive does not exclude work with portable devices used externally to workplaces.
The UK excludes only “portable systems not in prolonged use”. This means that portable
systems used for long periods of time are included even if they are used externally (not at
workplace). Estonia excludes only “working short-term with laptop computers”.
In order to answer the question of whether the VDU Directive, a new directive or some
alternative solution would be the most appropriate approach to dealing with OSH problems
arising from work with portable ICT devices it is important to find out which requirements
necessary for work with portable ICT devices are missing from the relevant existing
legislation.
The relevant legislation does not contain concrete requirements for certain specific aspects of
work with portable devices, e.g.:
· ergonomic features of portable devices and systems;
· regulation of what are appropriate circumstances for extramural work with portable
systems;
· requirements for the technical and personal support of employees who work with portable
systems;
· requirements for training and qualification in order to raise workers’ awareness and
competence, to enable them to cope with health risks arising from work with portable
systems;
· obligations for the protection of the eyes and eyesight of employees working with portable
devices.
With the exception of the last point, i.e. examination of the eyes and eyesight, for example by
an ophthalmological examination offered by the employer, all specific aspects mentioned
above are difficult to regulate by concrete binding requirements. Instead, a need exists for
92
flexible solutions on the basis of a culture of prevention and personal competence on the part
of the employer, and for technical and ergonomic standards for portable systems to be made
available for occupational use by the suppliers. Good examples are the German GS label
(“certified safety”) and the private TCO standard governing CRT monitors for stationary
workplaces.
2. Options for legislation and enforcement
Based on the analysis in chapter II, several options for the adaptation of regulation and
enforcement to work with portable systems can be developed.
The options for legislative action are:
i. A new directive for work with portable systems.
In order to be an effective tool for setting OSH standards, this Directive (“Directive on the
minimum safety and health requirements for work with portable computing and
communication systems and devices”) would have to cover all aspects of work with portable
systems: the technical and ergonomic requirements for the portable systems, the requirements
for the working environment, work behaviour and work organisation, training and
qualification etc. Whether this Directive would be flexible enough to adjust to the growing
pace of technological development, to cope with different aspects of mobile work with ICT
systems, and to cover the diverse criteria of small enterprises and big companies remains
questionable.
ii. Extending and updating the VDU Directive for work with portable systems.
As shown in chapter I, the requirements of the VDU Directive are also applicable to work
with portable systems. Only the annex is specifically designed for VDU workstations. It
appears feasible to establish a second annex to the VDU Directive for portable systems. This
would, however, give rise to the same problems as mentioned above under point (i), were it to
be necessary for the requirements for portable systems and work with them to be formulated
with sufficient flexibility and detail. This solution would, however, have the attractive feature
of being an adaptation of an existing directive, one which is widely known and accepted, to
new developments in the area of work with VDU systems. Should this option be selected, the
requirements in the new annex should be limited to certain principles, focussing upon
requirements for the equipment and the devices, whereas working practices should be
referenced to management practices in the form of best-practice examples.
This option appears to be preferred by some OSH experts, as the discussion at the workshop
and communication from (for example) Finland (FIOH) show.
iii. Creation of new legal instruments or updating of an existing one (other than the VDU
Directive).
As shown above, all aspects of work with portable ICT systems are covered by the principles
formulated in the OSH Framework Directive. Nevertheless, most of the VDU Directive
requirements may be used only as guidelines of good practice for working with VDUs in
general and could not be applied as binding regulations for all workers and sectors involved.
93
In cases (ii) and (iii), there is a need for guidelines for work with portable systems. Such
guidelines should contain:
· Technical “standards” for portable systems for professional use;
· Practical solutions for risk assessment and good practice for work with portable ICT
systems, including training and qualification, support and work organisation;
· Recommendations, in particular for small enterprises without a specialized organisational
background;
· Recommendations for corporate prevention culture including collective agreements.
Due to the restricted capacity to influence the technological development and use of portable
ICT systems, the guidelines should concern not only employers, but also several other target
groups:
· Employees;
· Suppliers of portable devices and systems;
· Suppliers of services (transportation, accommodation, support).
Enforcement
Irrespective of the option chosen, enforcement of legal measures would pose problems due to
the fact that effective monitoring of work performed with portable systems is complicated.
The labour inspectorates should pay more attention to monitoring and enforcement activities
relating to OSH management of work with portable systems (e.g. the selection of appropriate
systems, risk assessment, adapted organization of prevention). This, however, would be more
effective in large companies. Small and medium enterprises without a specialized OSH
section could be reached by information campaigns in cooperation with their sectoral
organizations.
Besides monitoring and enforcement, labour inspectorates should contribute to the
dissemination of guidelines and provide advice to employers.
To meet these demands, labour inspectorates should increase their own competence in the
field of working with portable systems and intensify cooperation, for example, with sectoral
organisations, in order to provide the employers and employees with adequate information
and advice.
94
VI Discussion
The study shows that the occupational use of portable computing and communication devices
continues to grow in terms of the number of users, occupational fields and activities, and the
speed of technological advance.
A special problem here is the fact that the driving force behind the development of such
devices and systems and the associated communication services is not usually occupational
use but use outside work.
The needs of occupational use can only find expression in actual technology if users articulate
their needs. However, in view of the pace of technological advance, users often have little
understanding, beyond their own immediate experience, of the ergonomics and other health
aspects of working with portable devices. Consequently, they find it difficult to tell
manufacturers exactly what they want.
These needs could be formulated by OSH experts and laid down in regulations or guidelines
and exercise influence in the form of “standards”. The VDU Directive has so far performed
this function well for stationary VDU workstations. However, in view of the rapid
developments in technology and applications, we have to ask whether the best approach here
really is relatively inflexible legislation or rather guidelines adapted to ongoing development
and with detailed instructions for specific fields of application.
Nevertheless, it must be said that a number of basic requirements relating to VDUs from the
VDU Directive are still absolutely applicable to mobile devices and are also realistic for
portable devices. These requirements, e.g. relating to the depiction of characters on displays
or the reflective properties of VDUs, do not lose their relevance for healthy ergonomics even
if these facts are ignored by many new technical developments, such as the shiny surfaces of
notebook screens. In any case, any new guidelines should explicitly refer to the requirements
of the VDU Directive.
The analysis of the risks shows that these can only be assessed and addressed if the devices,
the type and intensity of their use, and all the other conditions associated with their use
(working environment, work organization, employee skill levels etc.) are given appropriate
overall consideration.
We have tried to demonstrate that the specific health risks are varied and far-reaching but
have a single common point of origin – working on location with portable computing and
communication devices. It is often argued that the conditions in which work on location takes
place are not monitored by the employer. The fact is, however, that it is precisely this
technology that is increasing the degree to which employee performance, working location
and work methods are monitored. If this is the case, it must then also be possible to protect
employee health with the aid of this technology. In addition, it is crucial in this context that
mobile employees have sufficient knowledge of the possible risks to their health and of the
possible remedies. The employer can and must inform his employees accordingly. The study
shows that even today basic recommendations can already be made for the protection of
health from the ergonomic and psychosocial risks of working with portable computing and
communication devices.
95
All the same, there is still too little knowledge available from specific and representative
studies. The latter are essential for the drafting of evidence-based guidelines for specific tasks.
Whereas the requirements relating to these devices are still relatively invariant and can be
defined accordingly, work activities with portable devices are hardly amenable to
standardization because they take place at locations of a varied nature and are subject to
changing external conditions largely beyond the control of both employer and employee.
On the other hand, these conditions depend to a certain extent on the type of activity, e.g. the
use of notebooks by support technicians, of input devices in logistics and of displays in
vehicles. The study contains a very extensive overview of current fields of application. For
these various fields of application it is possible to issue more or less specific
recommendations and principles for the use of portable devices.
What is essential is that companies whose employees use portable computing and
communication devices on location make a point of familiarizing themselves with the health
aspects of this work and organize the work and health protection measures accordingly.
Guidelines must be made available to them for this.
In practice, OSH managers cannot themselves monitor activities with portable devices, but
must concentrate instead on organizing work and health protection.
In doing so, they can refer on the one hand to the OSH Framework Directive, while at the
same time working with guidelines containing the evidence-based state of science and
technology in terms of risks and remedies.
They should participate in the development and dissemination of guidelines and, in this way,
acquire the necessary expertise themselves and develop new methods for the indirect
monitoring of OSH by focusing their attention on in-company processes, organization, skills
and health protection culture.
96
VII Conclusions
1. The occupational use of computing and communications systems is continuing to grow in
terms of:
· The number of users,
· The fields of application and activities
· New technologies.
2. The following terminology is proposed:
· “Mobile IT-supported work”
· “Mobile e-Worker”
This is because these two aspects combined – mobility and the use of portable IT – are the
characteristic features.
3. Since activities in the various fields of application differ greatly in some respects and the
distinction between blue- and white-collar activities is becoming blurred, categorization on
the basis of the characteristics of the particular activity makes more sense for the
identification of risks and taking preventive measures.
4. The health risks due to poor or maladapted ergonomics and psychosocial stress are varied
and considerable. These can be acute dangers (accident risk, e.g. from the use of portable
devices when driving) or the latent risks of chronic physical and mental illness. These are the
result not only of the direct use of the devices but also, and more importantly, of the
circumstances of device use.
The first standards, recommendations and principles can already be defined on the basis of the
existing findings.
5. There is a lack of representative and specific studies on mobile IT-supported work. These
are necessary so that evidence-based guidelines can be drafted and specific, targeted measures
can be defined.
6. The employer can and must shoulder his responsibility for the safety and health of his
mobile e-workers even when they work away from the normal base. OSH management must
therefore be adapted accordingly. This includes risk assessment, the availability of suitable
equipment and systems, technical and personal support, training employees to use the systems
in a healthy way and an adapted health protection culture. Employers, and particularly small
and medium-sized enterprises, as well as manufacturers of devices and providers of IT
services need standards and generally accepted recommendations.
7. The OSH Framework Directive covers all occupational risks including all aspects of mobile
IT-supported work in general. The VDU Directive is not applicable from the legal point of
view, but many of its provisions are applicable in practice to portable devices and particularly
the ergonomic requirements. Serving as the state of the art, these should also form the basis
for possible “standards” for portable devices for occupational use.
8. There are three options for future OSH management:
· A new directive;
· Modification of the VDU Directive and the extension of its scope to cover mobile IT-
supported work;
97
· No new or modified directive, but the drafting of guidelines and “standards”.
The last option would appear to be the best way of satisfying the needs of OSH in the
mobile IT-supported work sector in the light of the speed of technological progress.
9. The most effective way to achieve compliance is for OSH authorities to concentrate on
indirect monitoring by inspecting the way work is organized in companies. They should
participate in the drafting of generally accepted evidence-based OSH management
“standards” and guidelines and in their dissemination.
10. OSH management for mobile IT-supported work should facilitate a holistic approach in
cooperation with other organisational management disciplines. This is the key factor in
successfully enabling occupational safety and health in this new field.
98
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110
List of Photographs
Photograph 1 Person carrying a laptop
p. 18
Photograph 2 A portable laptop table
p. 25
111
List of Figures
Figure 1
Characteristics of portable ICT tools
p. 17
Figure 2
Teleworkers by gender and category of occupation; 2001
p. 19
Figure 3
Use of ICT by sector
p. 20
Figure 4
Locations where mobile eWorkers use Internet while
p. 22
travelling
Figure 5
Individuals who accessed the Internet at their place of work
p. 24
(other than home) in EU27, EU25, EU15, Euro area
Figure 6
Time spent on the move by mobile workers
p. 26
Figure 7
Multilocational eWork and Tele-cooperation (EU15)
p. 27
Figure 8
Enterprises practising different types of eWork in Finland
p. 28
Figure 9
eWork in Europe by type of eWork (in %)
p. 29
Figure 10
Enterprises providing access to their IT systems for
p. 33
employees working part time away from enterprise
premises
Figure 11
Employees working part of their time away from their
p. 34
enterprise premises and accessing the enterprise IT systems
(EU27)
Figure 12
Activities of mobile eWorkers in 2002
p. 35
Figure 13
Extent of out-of-hours contact, by length of average
p. 38
working week, EU27 (%)
Figure 14
Effects of different forms of telework from a study among
p. 50
members of the three groups
Figure 15
Theoretical framework for the consequences of
p. 51
telecommuting
Figure 16
Different forms of control in small and medium-sized
p. 62
enterprises
Figure 17
Answers from mobile ICT users
p. 63
Figure 18
Mental workload, mental strain, and consequences of
p. 75
mental strain according to ISO EN 10 075
112
List of Tables
Table 1
Usual place of work
p. 22
Table 2
Place of use of Internet and mobile access
p. 23
Table 3
Percentage of individuals who accessed Internet at their
p. 23-24
place of work (other than home) in the last 3 months
Table 4
Internet access and access to company’s computer networks
p. 27
in Europe (EU10)
Table 5
Spread of multi-locational work and tele-cooperation in
p.31
BISER regions
Table 6
Access to Internet through selected devices, 2002 (%)
p.32
Table 7
Examples of types of work with portable devices and the
p.37
related typical OSH risks and OSH management problems
Table 8
Assignment of resources and risk factors to forms of work
p.53
load
Table 9
Search engines used for the web search
p.69-70
Table 10
Keywords used for the web search
p.70
Table 11
High-risk domains in mobile IT-supported work
p.80
Table 12
Domains of some OSH Framework Directive issues
p.81
113
List of Abbreviations
AmI
ambient intelligence
ASP
application service provider / providing
BISER
Benchmarking the Information Society: e-Europe
Indicators for European Regions
CNET
www.cnet.com
CPU
Central Processing Unit
CSCW
computer supported collaborative work
DGB
Confederation of German Trade Union
(Deutscher Gewerkschaft Bund)
DGUV
German Statutory Accident Insurance (Die
Deutsche Gesetzliche Unfallversicherung)
EC
European Commission
E-commerce
Electronic commerce
EEC
European Economic Community
EEG
Electroencephalography
EU
European Union
EU10
Cyprus, Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary,
Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Malta, Slovakia,
Slovenia
EU15
European Union (15 countries: Belgium,
Germany, France, Italy, Luxembourg,
Netherlands, Denmark, Ireland, United Kingdom,
Greece, Portugal, Spain, Austria, Finland,
Sweden.)
EU25
European Union (25 countries: Belgium,
Germany, France, Italy, Luxembourg,
Netherlands, Denmark, Ireland, United Kingdom,
Greece, Portugal, Spain, Austria, Finland,
Sweden, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Estonia,
Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Malta,
Slovakia, Slovenia)
EU27
European Union (27 countries: Belgium,
Germany, France, Italy, Luxembourg,
Netherlands, Denmark, Ireland, United Kingdom,
Greece, Portugal, Spain, Austria, Finland,
Sweden, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Estonia,
Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Malta,
114
Slovakia, Slovenia, Bulgaria, Romania.)
EUROSTAT
Directorate-General of the European
Commission, responsible for statistics
Euro zone/Euro area
Austria, Belgium, Cyprus, Finland, France,
Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Slovenia
Luxembourg, Malta, Netherlands, Portugal,
Spain.
FASTAP
the world's smallest keypad, formerly known as
OneTouch
FIOH
Finish Institute of Occupational Health
FIZ-Technik
Fachinformationszentrum Technik; Centre for
Professional Information (free translation)
GB
Gigabyte
GDP
gross domestic product
GPS
Global Positioning System
GVG
Gesellschaft für Versicherungswissenschaft und -
gestaltung
ICT
information and communication technologies
INSP
database of FIZ-Technik
Internet
worldwide, publicly accessible network of
computer networks using the Internet Protocol
(IP)
IT
information technology
IST
Information Society Technologies
LCD
liquid crystal device
MID
mobile Internet device
Mobile eWorker
(physically) mobile worker using ICT
systems with high intensity
MOSAIC
Mobile Worker Support Environments
MS
Member States (of European Union)
OSH
Occupational Safety and Health
PC
personal computer
PDA
personal digital assistant
115
PS
portable (computer) systems
QWERTY
modern-day keyboard layout on English-
language computer and typewriter keyboards
RFID
radio-frequency identification tag
SIBIS
Statistical Indicators Benchmarking the
Information Society
SMEs
small and medium-size enterprises
SoC
System-on-a-chip
SSCT-LCD
Surface-Stanilized Cholesteric Texture LCD
TEMA
database of FIZ-Technik
TFT-LCD
thin-film transistor LCD
TNO
Nederlandse Organisatie voor Toegepast
Natuurwetenschappelijk Onderzoek; Netherlands
Organisation for Applied Scientific Research
UK
United Kingdom
UMPC
ultra-mobile PC
USB
Universal Serial Bus
VGA
Video Graphics Array
VDU Directive
Visual Display Unit Directive
WWW
World Wide Web
ZIGUV
Zentrales Informationssystem der gesetzlichen
Unfallversicherung, Central Information System
of German Statutory Accident Insurance (free
translation)
116
European Commission
The increasing use of portable computing and communication devices and its impact on the
health of EU workers
Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union
2010 — 116 pp. — 21 × 29.7 cm
ISBN 978-92-79-15399-0
doi: 10.2767/29806
This report aims to shed light on the purported effects of portable computing and
communication devices (hereafter called portable IT) on the health and safety of those
workers that may be using them more frequently. In fact it is believed that this trend,
rather than be attenuated, should increase since it is to be expected that, in its various
forms and guises, the use of portable IT will become an unavoidable aspect of ever more
professions/occupations. The various types of health effects due to portable IT use, both
physical and psychological, are covered in the report.
In tackling this challenge the report tries also to characterise patterns of portable IT use
among those occupations where it is supposedly more typical. Thus, types of work,
working patterns, working environments, categories of workers and the possible
disruption to personal life that the portability factor may bring about, are all aspects
covered. A prediction of how will portable IT use evolve and the associated health
problems to be expected is also included.
The public of this report are any interested parties such as employers and employee
organisations and representatives, policy makers, managers and workers as well as
health professionals, all of whom may find in the report interesting and new information
that may help them understand the phenomenon better and make more informed
choices.
Consequently, the report also includes options for management and legislation to try and
compensate for the purported negative health effects of portable IT use.
This publication is available in printed and electronic format in English.
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KE-30-10-325
The increasing use of portable
-EN-C
computing and communication
devices and its impact on the
health of EU workers
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European Commission
The increasing use of portable
-EN-C
computing and communication
devices and its impact on the
health of EU workers
Are you interested in the publications of the Directorate-General for Employment,
Social Affairs and Equal Opportunities?
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European Commission
The increasing use of portable
computing and communication
devices and its impact on the
health of EU workers
European Commission
Directorate-General for Employment, Social Affairs and Equal Opportunities
Unit F.4
Manuscript completed in December 2009
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Table of Content
Executive summary __________________________________________________________ 5
Introduction _______________________________________________________________ 10
I Methodology_____________________________________________________________ 11
II Overview of the technology and its use________________________________________ 12
Summary _______________________________________________________________ 12
Introduction _____________________________________________________________ 13
1. Definitions ____________________________________________________________ 14
2. Status quo analysis______________________________________________________ 16
2.1 Description of portable computing and communication systems _______________ 16
2.1.1 Types __________________________________________________________ 16
2.1.2 Functionality, characteristics and ergonomic features ____________________ 17
2.2 Description of work with portable systems ________________________________ 19
2.2.1 Types of work using portable systems ________________________________ 19
2.2.2 The work environment of mobile eWorkers ____________________________ 22
2.3 Survey of the use of portable systems among the working population ___________ 26
2.3.1 Extent of, and increase in, use_______________________________________ 26
2.3.2 Categories and numbers of workers affected ___________________________ 31
2.3.3 Typical activities and tasks _________________________________________ 36
2.3.4 Types of work with portable devices and possible OSH risks and OSH
management problems _________________________________________________ 37
2.3.5 How portable systems influence the boundary between work hours and private
time________________________________________________________________ 38
2.3.6 Possible evolution of the technology and future use of portable systems______ 40
2.4 Technological development and nanotechnology ___________________________ 41
2.5 Work of tomorrow – future working patterns ______________________________ 44
2.6 Foreseeable future use of portable systems ________________________________ 45
2.7 Discussion and conclusions ____________________________________________ 47
III Assessment of the OSH risks _______________________________________________ 50
1. Psychosocial risk factors _________________________________________________ 50
Summary _____________________________________________________________ 50
Introduction ___________________________________________________________ 50
Deduction of psychosocial risk factors and resources ___________________________ 52
1.1 Investigation into specific psychosocial resources and risk factors______________ 55
1.1.1 Work organization________________________________________________ 55
1.1.2 Work content ____________________________________________________ 60
1.1.3 Social relations at work____________________________________________ 61
1.1.4 Operational and societal conditions __________________________________ 64
1.1.5 Personal influences _______________________________________________ 64
1.2 Risks of illness and accidents deriving from psychosocial stressors_____________ 65
1.3 Psychosocial implications for the proposed future development in work using
portable computing and communication devices_______________________________ 65
1.4 Demographic effects _________________________________________________ 66
1.5 Expert interviews ____________________________________________________ 67
1.6 Conclusions ________________________________________________________ 68
2. Ergonomic risk factors___________________________________________________ 70
Summary _____________________________________________________________ 70
Introduction ___________________________________________________________ 70
2.1 The effects of biomechanical workload___________________________________ 72
2.2 Effects of the visual interface design _____________________________________ 75
3
2.3 Effects of excessive noise and vibration levels _____________________________ 76
2.4 Effects of cognitive load and multiple task situations ________________________ 76
2.5 Effects of Ageing ____________________________________________________ 78
2.6 Discussion and Conclusions ___________________________________________ 79
IV Implications for the Management of OSH _____________________________________ 80
1. Difficulties in applying “traditional” approaches to OSH management _____________ 80
2. Exclusion from collective agreements due to mobility __________________________ 82
3. Consequences and recommendations for practical OSH management ______________ 83
4. Conclusions ___________________________________________________________ 84
V Implications for regulation and enforcement ___________________________________ 85
Summary _______________________________________________________________ 85
1. Challenges and possible approaches for legislation and enforcement_______________ 85
1.1 OSH Framework Directive 89/391/EEC __________________________________ 86
1.2 Possibly relevant EU regulatory framework _______________________________ 88
1.3 Directive 90/270/EEC (work with display screen equipment) _________________ 88
2. Options for legislation and enforcement _____________________________________ 93
VI Discussion _____________________________________________________________ 95
VII Conclusions____________________________________________________________ 97
Bibliography ______________________________________________________________ 99
Literature _______________________________________________________________ 99
Legislation _____________________________________________________________ 110
List of Photographs ______________________________________________________ 111
List of Figures __________________________________________________________ 112
List of Tables ___________________________________________________________ 113
List of Abbreviations _____________________________________________________ 114
4
Executive summary
Portable computing and communication devices are widely used by workers in different
occupations and their use is steadily increasing.
Working with portable devices and systems differs markedly from the work with visual
display units at workstations which is regulated by the European visual display units (VDU)
Directive1 and governed by a host of guidelines and recommendations within the Member
States of the European Union (EU MS)2.
What are the new and changing risks to the safety and health of the working population from
the steadily growing use of portable systems and devices and their ongoing technical
development?
Which problems can be identified for the employers’ occupational safety and health (OSH)
management and for legislation and implementation in the EU and its Member States? What
scope is there to solve these problems?
Against this background, the main findings of this study are shown below.
The first part of the study gives an overview of the technology and its use, especially of:
· the various types of portable computing and communication systems currently in use
including devices such as personal digital assistants (PDAs), laptop computers, smart
phones, tablet personal computers, etc. (types of systems);
· the types of work that such computing and communication systems are used for (types of
work);
· the extent to which portable systems are used by the working population – exploring how
their prevalence is growing in absolute terms (extent of, increase in, use). The volume of
work and types of tasks that the systems are commonly used for and the extent to which
they are used (e.g. number of emails sent/received, time spent using them); how the
systems permit or encourage work during free time (e.g. after office hours, at weekends
and on holiday);
· the types of workers using portable systems (categories and numbers of workers) and the
number and types of workers affected. While still regarded by many as ‘executive toys’,
these systems are increasingly used by salespersons, technical support workers, delivery
persons, restaurant and maintenance staff, etc.;
· how the technology behind these systems – and especially the hardware and
telecommunications – is developing, and how the technology is likely to evolve in the
future, highlighting the most important emerging technologies and explaining what this
means for future work patterns (evolution of technologies and future use).
1 Council Directive 90/270/EEC on the minimum safety and health requirements for work with display screen
equipment.
2 e.g.: Swedish Work Environment Authority: “Work with Display Screen Equipment”; UK: Statutory Instrument 1992 No.
2792 “The Health and Safety (Display Screen Equipment) Regulations 1992”; Estonia: Regulation No. 362 of the
Government of the Republic of 15 November 2000 “Occupational health and safety requirements for work with display
screen equipment”; Germany: Bildschirmarbeitsverordnung, BGI-650 (Bildschirm- und Büroarbeitsplätze – Leitfaden für die
Gestaltung).
5
The sources of information that have been reviewed and analysed are – survey results, sales
data, manufacturers’ and service providers’ information, published scientific research, market
research, data from national authorities, and expert opinions. The aim is not to give a
statistical overview, but rather to use the reliable data available to describe the situation and
identify trends. However, the available data are for many issues still very limited, because
most of the statistics found relate to consumer products.
Important stressors that were found are, for example, the blurring of boundaries between
work and family life, the extension of the working day, difficulties in supervising mobile
employees at work and the feeling that mobile employees have of being insufficiently
involved in company decisions and having poorer career prospects. These stressors may cause
increased stress and mental fatigue which in turn may have long-term consequences e.g. a
weakening of the immune system, psychosomatic diseases, sleep disorders and cardiovascular
disease.
Measures to decrease mental strain in mobile workers that use portable computing and
communication devices can include the training and preparation of these employees to
organize their mobile work themselves and to identify and prevent stressors that may impair
health. Feedback routines for the evaluation of performance should be agreed and employees
should not be forced to be available at all times. It should also be borne in mind that specific
sectors, e.g. the industrial as opposed to the administrative, may differ significantly regarding
the occurrence of psychosocial risks.
The main ergonomic risks considered are:
· manual handling problems resulting from the inevitable compromise in terms of usability
in the design of portable devices, bearing in mind that they will sometimes be used in cold
conditions or situations encouraging poor posture;
· repetitive movements, especially involving a pinch grip, which may induce repetitive
strain injury;
· poor legibility resulting from small display screens and controls, together with problems
arising from reflective glare or excessively low ambient lighting;
· excessive noise levels resulting from high volume settings to compensate for background
noise;
· static and/or poor posture resulting from using the devices in an unsuitable environment;
· cognitive load resulting in accident risks, e.g. when driving or as a pedestrian crossing the
road.
Using the data found, no reliable assessment of the risk factors mentioned above was possible.
Instead, we have made assumptions about their impact whilst highlighting fields of interest
for further research.
It would seem advisable to distinguish between different occupational categories or groups of
workers. In addition to the differences in work environments for portable systems, these
categories reflect differing degrees of intensity of portable systems use and of ICT
(information and communication technologies) skills in most cases as well. Since the
duration and intensity of portable systems use are crucial factors particularly with
regard to biomechanical workload, it is important to analyse the organization of work as
well. Of course, while variations between different occupational categories may affect the
total amount of biomechanical and cognitive workload, they may also be helpful for
identifying the resources available to enable the user to cope with a certain workload.
6
In addition, it is important to take account of future developments in technology. Since
portable systems designed for communication tasks are smaller and lighter than those
designed for computing tasks, they tend to reduce the biomechanical load and are more
appropriate for mobile work. Likewise, there is evidently a need for the user-centred design
of mobile devices which are compatible with the cognitive load during mobile work.
Future portable systems should facilitate multitasking activities, for instance.
Mobile IT (information technology)-supported work is considered hard to design and regulate
with the aid of conventional occupational safety and health approaches. This is because many
aspects of work which are fixed in traditional work settings become variable within mobile
IT-supported work situations. OSH principles and measures based on such factors are thus no
longer applicable within this new setting. In this way, mobile IT-supported work confronts
corporate OSH management with new challenges. Many of the factors relevant for the OSH
of mobile IT-supported workers are associated with organization and processes. OSH
management must, therefore, adopt an approach which will ensure compliance with the legal
restrictions and OSH regulations. It should encourage a more holistic approach in
cooperation with other organizational management disciplines. This seems to be a key
factor for successfully applying occupational safety and health management in the mobile IT-
supported work sector and thus for the overall health of individuals at work.
To describe the implications for regulation and implementation, we analysed the existing
European legislation against the background of the new requirements from the field.
We present and discuss several options for adapting existing legislation and adopting
alternative solutions for dealing with new and ongoing developments in this field.
The OSH Framework Directive covers all risks, all kinds of work and addresses the
obligations without exempting any employers. The requirements are applicable to all specific
aspects of work with portable devices. In this sense, there are no loopholes in existing OSH
provisions.
Our analysis of the VDU Directive shows that, while it is clearly not applicable in the mobile
environment in a legal sense, it can be used as a guideline for the design of portable devices,
if not for how users work with them.
It is worth noting that the implementation of the VDU Directive in some EU Member States
does not exclude from its application the work with portable devices at workplaces.
Three different approaches to legislation for working with portable systems can be described:
a) a new directive for working with portable systems;
b) extending and updating the VDU Directive to include work with portable systems;
c) no new or updated regulations.
In cases (b) and (c) there would be a need for guidelines for work with portable systems.
Whichever of the options proposed above is chosen, those charged with its implementation
will be faced with the practical problem that it is impossible to effectively monitor work with
portable systems in the field. The labour inspectorates must focus their controls and
7
enforcement on the OSH management of working with portable systems (e.g. selection of
appropriate systems, risk assessment, adapted organization of prevention).
The conclusions drawn from the investigative part of the study are as follows:
1. The occupational use of computing and communications systems is continuing to grow in
terms of:
· the number of users;
· the fields of application and activities;
· new technologies.
2. The following terminology is proposed:
· “mobile IT-supported work”;
· “mobile e-Worker”.
This is because these two aspects combined – mobility and the use of portable IT – are the
characteristic features.
3. Since activities in the various fields of application differ greatly in some respects and the
distinction between blue- and white-collar activities is becoming blurred, categorization on
the basis of the characteristics of the particular activity makes more sense for the
identification of risks and taking preventive measures.
4. The health risks due to poor or maladapted ergonomics and psychosocial stress are varied
and considerable. They vary from acute dangers (accident risk, e.g. from the use of portable
devices when driving) to the latent risks of chronic physical and mental illness. These are the
result not only of the direct use of the devices but also, and more importantly, of the
circumstances in which devices are used. The first standards, recommendations and principles
can already be defined on the basis of the existing findings.
5. There is a lack of representative and specific studies on mobile IT-supported work. These
are necessary so that evidence-based guidelines can be drafted and specific, targeted measures
defined.
6. Employers can and must shoulder their responsibility for the safety and health of their
mobile e-workers even when they work away from their normal base. OSH management
practice must therefore be adapted accordingly. This includes risk assessment, the availability
of suitable equipment and systems, technical and personal support, training employees to use
the systems in a healthy way and a new health protection culture. Employers, and particularly
small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), as well as manufacturers of devices and
providers of IT services, need standards and generally accepted recommendations.
7. The OSH Framework Directive covers all occupational risks including all aspects of mobile
IT-supported work in general. The VDU Directive is not applicable from the legal point of
view, but many of its provisions are applicable in practice to portable devices and particularly
the ergonomic requirements. Serving as the state of the art, these should also form the basis
for possible “standards” for portable devices for occupational use.
8
8. There are three options for future OSH management:
· a new directive;
· modification of the VDU Directive and extension of its scope to cover mobile IT-
supported work;
· no new or modified directive, but the drafting of guidelines and “standards”.
The last option would appear to be the best way of satisfying the needs of OSH in the mobile
IT-supported work sector in the light of the speed of technological progress.
9. The most effective way to achieve compliance is for OSH authorities to concentrate on
indirect monitoring by inspecting the way work is organized in companies. They should
participate in the drafting of generally accepted evidence-based OSH management
“standards” and guidelines and in their dissemination.
10. OSH management for mobile IT-supported work should facilitate a holistic approach in
cooperation with other organisational management disciplines. This is the key factor in
successfully ensuring occupational safety and health in this new field.
9
Introduction
Portable computing and communication devices are widely used by workers from different
occupations and their use is steadily increasing.
The risks associated with working with portable devices and systems, for which at present no
guidelines exist, differ considerably from those associated with working with visual display
units at workstations. The latter are covered by the European VDU Directive and governed by
a host of guidelines and recommendations within the EU Member States.
In the light of the above, the study addresses the following issues:
· To what extent are mobile communication devices used by the working population – how
is such use growing in absolute terms and which types of workers are using them?
· How is the technology behind these devices – hardware and telecommunications –
developing, and how is the technology likely to evolve in the future?
· Description of the possible hazards arising from the use of portable computing and
communication devices and the risks to workers in terms of ill health and accidents. We
also consider how the nature and extent of these risks will change in the future in the light
of likely developments in technology and its use.
· The implications of the use and development of mobile communication and computing
devices for occupational health and safety management and for legislation and
implementation in the context of European law concerning health and safety at work.
· The scope is limited to work carried out in locations and environments that are impossible
or difficult for the employer to control.
10
I Methodology
Because of the limited time scale, the study was designed as an analysis of the literature and
other available information sources such as market research, survey results and data from
national authorities.
One of the findings was that there is a lack of specific research and field studies on the
psychosocial and ergonomic risks of using portable computing and communication devices.
Nonetheless, we were able to find a host of studies whose results could be applied to the
issues covered by this project. In the ergonomics sector in particular, we made use of our own
published research on input devices (keyboards, mouses etc.) for the study.
Nevertheless, it has to be stated that there is a strong need for representative field studies
devoted to the specific health and safety problems and issues arising from the widespread
occupational use of portable computing, communication and information systems. These
should look individually at the various tasks performed or supported by those systems (see
chapter II “Overview of the technology and its use”).
External expert opinions and the views of national authorities were obtained in interviews
with experts from European OSH institutes, universities and trade unions. When searching for
experts we were faced with the problem that there is a lack of experience in this field of study
among OSH experts.
A workshop was held with 14 participants from 3 countries and the European Commission in
the 4th quarter of the project to present and discuss the preliminary results and to draw
conclusions both from the experts’ views and also from the European perspective.
The preliminary results from the different parts of the study (technology and its use,
psychosocial and ergonomic risk factors) were presented and discussed. Work groups looked
more closely at the implications for OSH management, regulation and implementation.
The results of the workshop are reported in the relevant sections and in the final discussion
and conclusions of this report.
11
II Overview of the technology and its use
Summary
This chapter covers:
The various types of portable computing and communication systems currently in use, such as
personal digital assistants (PDAs), laptop computers, smart phones, tablet personal computers
(PCs), etc. (types of systems).
· Types of work that such computing and communication systems are used for (types of
work).
· The extent to which portable systems are used among the working population – exploring
both how their prevalence is growing in absolute terms (extent of, and increase in, use).
The volume of work and types of tasks that the systems are commonly used for and the
extent to which they are used (e.g. number of emails sent/received, time spent using
them); how the systems permit or encourage work during private time (e.g. after office
hours, on weekends and during holidays).
· The types of workers using portable systems (categories and numbers of workers) and the
number and types of workers affected. While still regarded by many as ‘executive toys’,
these systems are increasingly used by sales persons, technical support, delivery,
restaurant and maintenance staff, etc.
· How the technology which enables the use of these systems – especially the hardware and
telecommunications – is developing, and how the technology is likely to evolve in the
future, highlighting the most important emerging technologies and explaining what this
means for future work patterns (evolution of technologies and future use).
The study describes the sources of information that are reviewed and analysed – e.g. survey
results, sales figures, manufacturers’ or service providers’ information, published scientific
research, market research, data from national authorities and expert opinions. The aim is not
to give a statistical overview, but rather to use the reliable data that is available to describe the
situation and identify trends. For many issues the available data is still very limited. Most of
the statistics found relate to consumer products.
This study does not focus on long-term telework, such as working from home or from a
client’s premises, as its scope is limited to work carried out in locations and environments
which are impossible or difficult for the employer to control.
It is increasingly acknowledged that networked work environments, which make extensive
use of ICT for interconnecting workplaces across space and time, often by using portable
systems, play a significant role in economic competitiveness (Gareis 2006). Therefore the
impact on occupational safety and health in Europe of the increasing use of portable systems
is of great interest.
12
Introduction
Physically mobile workers (temporarily) using ICT systems3 with high intensity to support
their multi-locational or mobile work are called mobile eWorkers. In most cases these
mobile eWorkers use portable systems for computing and communication tasks. By “portable
computing and communication devices” (portable systems) [PSs] we understand portable
computer systems designed for deployment on the move, (temporarily) connected to an ICT
network for communication or data transfer tasks.
PSs may be independent systems or embedded systems. This study covers neither embedded
systems nor telecommuting (long-term telework) because in such cases PSs are, or can be,
used as stationary systems and such use does not differ from traditional office work.
With portability and styling as high priorities, ergonomics often takes a back seat in the
design of PSs. Furthermore, the devices are likely to be used in environments which – from a
health and safety perspective – are far from ideal. Locations such as the car, the train, or
standing in the street may be convenient, but they are a far cry from a well-designed office
environment.
The increasing use of PSs means that more people are working outside the office and are
doing so for longer periods. As a consequence, workers experience a blurring of work and
private life as they are expected to be available out of office hours, during weekends, and on
holidays. This blurring is aggravated by the fact that many systems are often also used for
making private arrangements, so that the traditional separation of work and private life is
made even more difficult. These factors have significant psychosocial implications as a result
of the intensification of work and increased pressure, combined with growing isolation.
Use of PSs in an occupational environment by mobile workers can be defined as ICT-
enabled multilocational work (Vartiainen, Matti (5) 2008). Little statistical data exists about
the actual extent and structure of this work and there is only a limited understanding of which
workers are involved in these activities. The database from a recent, representative EU-wide
survey (SIBIS (SIBIS 2003/2003)) can be used to explore in more depth the key
characteristics of mobile eWorkers.
This document gives an overview of portable computing and communication systems
(PSs) and their use by mobile eWorkers and mobile workers using PSs occasionally, the
evolution of technologies in this field, and their foreseeable future use (task 1 of the
study).
3 ICT = information and communication technologies.
13
1. Definitions
The following definitions are not presented in alphabetic order but grouped in related themes
for ease of understanding.
eWork is work using company computer systems. eWork is a synonym for ICT-supported
work.
Mobile eWork (mobile ICT-supported work) is used to describe all kinds of high-intensity
mobile work and work arrangements at the individual level carried out outside the home and
the main office, using ICT for online connections to the Internet and/or to company computer
systems (mobile computer-mediated work) (Andriessen/Vartiainen (eds.) 2006). Such work
takes place while workers are moving or at a certain destination, wherever it suits their work
activities, tasks, business schedule, and/or lifestyle (Vartiainen 2007). Mobile eWork is
related to the possibility of a person moving and executing tasks anywhere and at any time,
with the help of wired and wireless technologies and in a flexible manner
(Andriessen/Vartiainen 2006). Mobile eWork is done in ever changing situations with a need
to collaborate with other workers and to be connected to shared resources in order to achieve
common goals (Corso 2006). Mobile eWork can be classified by degree of physical mobility,
level of routine, type of data exchange, and degree of interaction (Vartiainen (2) Andriessen
2006).
A mobile eWorker is a person who works at least ten hours per week away from home and
from the main place of work and uses online computer connections when doing so (from:
Collaboration@Work, “The 2003 report on new working environments and practices”,
http://europa.eu.int/information_society/topics/ework/information/. This report uses the
traditional term “teleworker”).
Micro-mobility of a worker is in-house and on-site mobility (Vartiainen (4) 2007), perhaps
also including nearby buildings and areas (Andriessen/Vatiainen (eds.) 2006).
Multi-mobility
is
regular
movement
between
many
different
locations
(Andriessen/Vatiainen (eds.) 2006).
Full mobility is constant movement between different sites (Andriessen/Vatiainen (eds.)
2006).
Multi-locational eWork is eWork carried out at a number of different, often fixed, locations,
one of which may be the home (BISER 2004).
An instant office is a workplace instantly created and occupied temporarily by the worker in
a location that is not primarily designed for office work4.
Work-life balance is used to describe the balance between an individual's work and personal
life (family life and leisure)5. The determinants of work-life balance are located both at work
and in the home and in an individual’s personal characteristics (including age, gender, stage
4 Van Meel, J. “The European office – office design and national context”.
5 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Work-life_balance
14
of career, ambition, work involvement, level of energy, capacity for coping with competing
demands).
The specific characteristics of mobile eWork which can impact negatively on those involved
include information overload, short response times, availability, pace of change (Richter
2006), increased access hours, reduced autonomy, less freedom, pressure to work, multi-
tasking, and thinking time viewed as “non-value-added”. On the positive side, meWork can
allow some flexibility to redress the impact of travelling (Shaffers (2) 2006).
A portable system [PS] is a personal, small and lightweight ICT tool (hardware product),
designed to be used “on the go”/“on the move”, and that is temporarily independent of an
external electric power supply.6 7 A PS can be portable, wearable or at least easy to pack up
and move (Wilson 2006). A PS can contribute to making a normally stationary eWork
practice mobile (Johansson 2006). In the context of this study PSs are regarded as
(temporarily) connected to ICT networks for communication or data transfer tasks.
A wearable computer is a ruggedized system subsumed into the personal space of a user, is
always with the user and controlled by the user hands-free, is proactive, always on, always
accessible, often uses sensors for context- or location-awareness, and is connected to an ICT
network8.
6 Often portable systems are called mobile devices; this term is not used in this study because ICT systems typically are not
themselves mobile and the term ‘device’ also is used for technical objects that cannot act alone or independently of other
components.
7 The core toolset of meWorkers consists of a laptop computer and a mobile phone (Nieminen, Mannonen, Petri 2007).
8 Wearable computer definition adapted from Steve Mann's keynote address entitled "WEARABLE COMPUTING as means
for PERSONAL EMPOWERMENT" presented at the 1998 International Conference on Wearable Computing ICWC-98,
Fairfax VA, May 1998, and from the definition given by Rachuy, Carsten and Warden, Tobias in ”Probleme und Chancen
der Benutzerschnittstellen bei Wearable Computern”, University of Bremen, artec-paper Nr. 118, October 2004.
15
2. Status quo analysis
2.1 Description of portable computing and communication systems
2.1.1 Types
In this chapter various types of PSs currently in use, such as personal digital assistants
(PDAs), laptop computers, smart phones, tablet PCs, etc., are described in order to give an
overview of the state of the art in this field. This overview starts with first handheld
computers and ends with newer market products such as the so-called Mobile Internet
Devices or eBook readers.
The descriptions of specific types of PSs are mostly taken from the Internet encyclopaedia
Wikipedia (Wikipedia)9, though a few are from manufacturers’ own websites10.
In an English language environment a distinction is made between mobile devices and
desktop computers11. “Device” in the computing and electronics context may refer to
computer hardware, a peripheral device, device file, information appliance, display device,
electronic component or integrated circuit12. A peripheral device is any device attached to a
computer which expands its functionality. According to these definitions portable computing
and communication “devices” are portable computer systems [PSs].
Typically such PSs do not always act alone when used by mobile eWorkers, because they are
part of a solution that needs a communication network. In situations where PSs are used for
electronic communication or data transfer, they can correctly be named ‘devices’. This study
deals with systems that are designed for computing and communication purposes; but these
are independent portable computers also used for communication tasks, and therefore
(sometimes) connected to a communication network. In order to employ an already well
defined word, in this study we will avoid using the word “device” and instead use the term
“system” (portable computer system). Whenever such systems are not able to operate without
any local or wide-area network, the word “device” will be the correct one.
Many types of PSs have been introduced since the 1990s. These include:
· Personal digital assistant (PDA),
· Enterprise digital assistant (EDA),
· Smartphone,
· Wearable computer,13
· PDT,14
· UMPC,15 16
9 Wikipedia content can be copied, modified, and redistributed so long as the new version grants the same freedoms to others
and acknowledges the authors of the Wikipedia articles used (a direct link back to the article is generally thought to satisfy
the attribution requirement). More information on reuse of Wikipedia material can be found at
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Copyrights#Reusers.27_rights_and_obligations.
10 http://www.microsoft.com/windowsmobile/components/devices/
11 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_web
12 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Device
13 Research is going on in the field of wearable computers, see chapter “Technology Development”.
14 Portable data terminal.
15 Ultra-mobile personal computer.
16 http://www.intel.com/products/mid/downloads/umpc2006.pdf
16
· Calculator,17
· Laptop
· eBook reader,
· MID,18
· etc.
2.1.2 Functionality, characteristics and ergonomic features
The functionality, characteristics and ergonomic aspects of a sample of PSs currently in use
will be described here in order to give an overview of the current situation in this field.
PSs can be classified by the application for which they have been designed, as they are mainly
intended either for communication or for computing tasks. Systems designed for
communication tasks are more miniaturized and lighter than those designed for computing
tasks and therefore are more appropriate for supporting mobile work.
For this reason, all current types of PSs may converge in designs which make use of
computing facilities via Internet or other networks (application service providing (ASP)),
leaving PSs for communication tasks only. Computing tasks would then be run on servers, so
that PSs would only be used for inputting tasks and displaying the results.
The technology seems to be evolving in the direction of unified communication and
information channels that allow communication in multimedia mode (voice, data, text, and
video) together with related services, such as (instant) teleconferencing or asynchronous
communication.
17 A calculator is a system that is not used for communication purposes and therefore is not further described in this study.
18 Mobile Internet device.
17
Figure 1: Characteristics of portable ICT tools
Application service providing via Internet
Unified information
and communication
SmartPHone
channels
Cell Phone
(voice, data, text,
Wearable
video)
Mobile
Internet
device
unication tasks m
om C
Ultra
portable
Portable data
terminal
Subnotebook
Notebook
Enterprise
digital assistant
Personal digital
Laptop
assistant
Ultra low-cost-pc
Calculator
Portable
Computer
Computing tasks
While at first glance some PSs seem adequate for office or permanent use over several hours,
further scrutiny shows that, while their functionality is in principle the same as that of non-
portable systems, their characteristics and ergonomic aspects make them inappropriate for
permanent occupational use.
On the other hand, PSs may not need to meet the provisions of the Directive because they are
designed only for occasional use and may be adapted for longer term use by means of
accessories. For instance, where necessary or advisable, an external display and a separate
keyboard are supported by a standard VGA (Video Graphic Array) connector and USB ports.
Given that PSs are mostly purpose- or custom-built and assuming that only appropriate
systems are used, the impact on occupational safety and health of the increasing use of
PSs can only be fully evaluated with reference to the purpose and user group of specific
systems.
From the point of view of users, all PSs have been designed to be used “on the go”/“on the
move”. For this reason, they have been optimized in terms of size and weight and with regard
to environmental conditions but with little attention being paid to the impact of the design on
occupational safety and health. Moreover, because of their potentially universal application,
sometimes systems designed for mobile use are used in situations and for applications for
which they were not intended.
18
Portable systems have been designed to be portable, and their designs therefore conflict
with some usability and ergonomic criteria. If these criteria are incompatible with
portability, this conflict may prove irresolvable.
The following photograph confirms our personal experience that the miniaturisation of PSs
can have a positive impact on occupational health and safety.
Photograph 1: Person carrying a laptop
Source: Lucy Dunne, Adaptive Information Cluster, University College Dublin, Jane McCann, University of Wales,
Newport,Sirpa Mörsky, HAMK, University of Applied Sciences, Hämeenlinna: “Humans – A Tutorial” (slide show).
The function of PSs is to support computing and communication activities; they are
characterized by their design for mobile users, and from an ergonomic point of view they are
not intended for constant use. Some PSs are designed for outdoor use and therefore can be
used in bad weather or other adverse environmental conditions.
2.2 Description of work with portable systems
2.2.1 Types of work using portable systems
This chapter identifies the types of work in which PSs are deployed.
The following aspects are of relevance for an analysis of the types of work in which PSs are
used:
· The target group of ICT solutions with a PS as end-user tool;
· The character and form of occupational use;
· Typical activities, tasks and jobs supported by PSs (scenarios, descriptions of usage);
· The field and range of application/functions of ICT solutions using PSs as end-user tools;
· Usability;
· The distinction between office work – including management jobs – and other work, such
as factory or maintenance work.
19
The types of work in which PSs are used can be characterized as those in which workers are
doing mobile computing “on the go”/“on the move”. This does not mean that these workers
are travelling. On the contrary, PSs are often used by workers that are only mobile on their
employer’s premises or on campus (micro-mobility). Regardless of occupation and category
of worker (white- or blue-collar worker), PSs are mostly used for information and
communication tasks. This is the function and aim of computer systems and
telecommunication networks. The differences originate from different solutions, applications
and services, and have little to do with the main characteristics of PSs.
From figure 2 we can see that in 2001 non-office workers (manual workers) did not use
computers as much as office workers. Managers had a very high rate of computer use (eWork
2001 and eWork 2002 [2001/2002]). It can be assumed that this category of worker also uses
PSs more often than other workers.
Figure 2: Teleworkers by gender and category of occupation; 2001
as % of computer-users for work by category
as % of total workers in the category
20
16
per 12
ce
nt
8
4
0
Men
Women
Self-employed
Managers
Other white- Manual workers
collar
Source: Eurobarometer, November 2000.
An analysis of the possible fields of occupation, using the typical classification (development,
production, sales, assistance, organizational support, and social services) shows that
production activities (manufacturing, building, installation, etc.) are not ICT activities, while
assistance tasks (operating, controlling, monitoring, etc.) can be supported by ICT. Typical
activities with ICT support are planning, design, programme development, information,
publishing, or promotion (sales), education, entertainment and care (social services).
However, the main field of ICT use is activities and tasks related to organizational support
(organizing, managing, writing, calculating, drawing and communicating). It is important to
understand that regardless of the occupation (profession) or job, typical work using PSs is
characterised by activities that can be, and are, supported by ICT. This will be shown in more
detail in Chapter 2.3.3 “Typical activities and tasks”. Whether people are working, for
example, in customs control, facility services, maintenance services, home care or project
management, most types of mobile work (including micro-mobility) can be supported in some
way by using PSs. Therefore it is difficult to categorize the use of PSs by type of work or by
profession. Generally, much less ICT support is possible in production work than in service
20
work. One group of workers in all sectors that use ICT to a very high degree are the so-called
knowledge workers, who typically use PSs while “on the go”. The following diagram shows
the importance of ICT use by sector. The rates of ICT use are very high in the sectors of
financial intermediation, real estate, public administration and education, which again shows
that ICT is used for information and communication purposes. Those workers whose work
implies a significant use of PC and Internet are classified as “IT” workers (37% of EU
workers).
Figure 3: Use of ICT by sector
IT
IT and machinery
machinery
Agriculture
Construction
Education
Public administration and defence
Real estate
Financial Intermediation
EU27
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
per cent
Source: Excerpt from European survey on working conditions 2007.
There are substantial differences in the use of technologies in the different occupational
groups19. Professionals, clerical workers, technicians and managers use IT most widely, in all
cases above 50%. At the other end of the spectrum are skilled workers and machine operators
(who use machine technologies in more than 60% of cases). Agricultural workers, unskilled
workers and service workers show low levels of use of both types of technology (with more
than 50% of workers not making any substantial use of technology at all).
A deeper analysis of types of work using portable systems requires a large number of different
classifications. The following classification method has been used in the Fourth European
Working Conditions Survey20:
· Gender and age (15 – 29, 30 – 49, 50+);
· Education – primary or lower, lower secondary, upper secondary, post secondary, tertiary,
postgraduate;
· Occupation – senior managers, professionals, technicians, clerical workers, service and
sales workers, agricultural and fishery workers, skilled workers, machine operators,
unskilled workers;
· Sector – agriculture and fishing, manufacturing, electricity/gas/water, construction,
wholesale and retail trade, hotels and restaurants, transport and communication, financial
19 See: European survey on working conditions 2007.
20 European survey on working conditions 2007, Table 5.1
21
intermediation, real estate, public administration and defence, education, health, other
services;
· Technology at work – IT, IT and machinery, machinery, little or no technology.
2.2.2 The work environment of mobile eWorkers
Some aspects of the usual work environment of mobile eWorkers will be presented in this
chapter.
The physical workplace can be described as a combination of:
· Work settings, i.e. furniture + ICT equipment;
· Space, i.e. office, factory, meeting room, project area, café, airplane, forest, car;
· Environment, i.e. office building, city district, street, airport, train, bus, natural
environment, home;
· Conditions, i.e. time, weather, sunlight, temperature and other environmental influences.
Additionally, the work environment can be described as:
· The physical workplace,
· A virtual space (established by ICT)
· A social space (established by other people).
The MOSAIC consortium21 (Shaffers (1) (eds.)), for example, has analysed the dimensions of
place and time in eWork, highlighting the fact that the work environment of mobile eWorkers
is a very complex research subject. Those interested in learning more will find a wealth of
fascinating results from this research on the AMI@Work website22.
PSs are mostly used to support multi-locational or mobile eWork outside the traditional
workplace. The term “multi-locational work” implies that persons spend working time at
more than one location as it suits their work tasks, business schedule and lifestyle (BISHER
2004). The concept of geographically mobile eWork implies that means of production, staff,
objects of work and cooperation partners can be geographically separated from one another.
Furthermore, the organisational and technological changes necessary for relocating eWork
result in new ways of work organisation that in turn make it easier to relocate further work.
The place of work of knowledge workers typically is a hotel, conference site or similar
location, or another company’s premises. The main purposes of mobile eWorkers using online
connections is sending and reading e-mails (92.4%) – less for outgoing than for incoming
communication – but about three quarters also browse the Internet and connect to their
company’s internal computer systems. However, 37% of EU15 mobile eWorkers use mobile
systems for data transfer on the move.23 Potential access points are teleservice centres such as
Internet cafés, which offer mobile eWorkers a temporary workplace equipped with PC,
Internet access, printer, fax etc. Such service providers are emerging at the nodes of
international traffic. They may contribute to making mobile work attractive, offering a
working environment like an office. However, currently only 5.4 % of all mobile eWorkers
make use of teleservice centres. (Gareis 2006)
21 MOSAIC (Mobile Worker Support Environments) is a specific campaign, funded by the European Commission under the
IST 6th Framework Programme; its key objective is to accelerate innovation in mobile worker support environments by
shaping future research and innovation activities in Europe, see http://www.ami-communities.eu/wiki/MOSAIC.
22 http://www.ami-communities.eu/wiki/communities
23 Base: All persons employed (N=5,100); weighted by EU15 population. Data source: SIBIS2002, GPS.
22
Figure 4: Locations where mobile eWorkers use Internet while travelling
Location used by the 4% of mobile eWorkers, who use computer
connections when travelling (multiple response)
100
80
per cent 60
40
20
0
Hotel, conference
Another
Internet cafe or
On the move
site or similar
company's
commercial
using mobile
location
premises
teleservice centre device for data
transfer
Source: Gareis, 2006.
The Fourth European Working Conditions Survey (European Survey on Working Conditions
2007) classifies workers by a single composite indicator of the usual place of work according
to their answers in one of the following eight categories (see table 1).
Table 1: Usual place of work
Place of work
Percentage of EU workers
(%)
In company
50
On company premises and outside
12
Only outside
10
Outside and from home
2
Only from home
2
At company and from home
6
A significant amount of time in all locations
5
Other
13
Source: European survey on working conditions 2007.
From table 2 we can see that about 7% of those accessing the Internet use a laptop to do so.
About 8% use a mobile phone for Internet access, and about 1% a handheld/pocket PC
(EU15, Eurobarometer, November 2002). The statistics for consumer products indicate an
upward trend here. It can be assumed that most of this usage is taking place during working
time, because laptops and pocket PCs are typical tools for mobile eWorkers. Internet access
via mobile phone will also mostly be used for work purposes, because Internet access for
23
private reasons is cheaper and much more convenient from a home landline. From these
figures, together with statistics about how many people access the Internet, it can be estimated
how many mobile eWorkers are accessing the Internet with PSs.
Table 2: Place of use of Internet and mobile access
EU-
BE DK DE EL ES FR IE IT LU NL AT PT FL SE UK
15
Proportion of persons using Internet (%)
At home
71
71
83
72
50 61 64 74 68 84 87 77 64 74 84 74
At work
43
47
50
37
26 36 44 42 40 44 50 44 42 50 57 51
At a friend’s or
33
33
15
40
21 21 40 30 20 27 32 17 20 22 26 41
relative’s home
At school,
19
25
15
17
24 21 20 23 15 17 18 13 24 23 19 24
college,
university
From a public
13
14
8
11
4
10 15 19 7
9
14 4
12 17 12 18
access point
At an Internet
9
6
3
11
20 16 6
14 5
8
9
4
4
4
5
9
cafe
With a mobile
8
6
1
14
1
2
5
7
2
7
7
2
4
3
6
11
phone
With a laptop
7
9
2
6
2
2
10 10 4
8
6
4
4
4
10 14
With a handheld 1
1
0
1
0
0
1
2
0
1
1
1
0
0
2
3
/pocket PC
Elsewhere
0
0
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
Source: Flash Eurobarometer 135, November 2002; Information society statistics, Data 1997 – 2002, THEME 4: Industry,
trade and service, 2003 edition (Information Society Statistics Pocketbook 2003), European Communities, Office for Official
Publications of the European Communities, Luxembourg.
From the following tables – the latest Eurostat statistics on Internet use – we can see the
individual Internet use by country. For this study the table showing the percentage of
individuals who accessed the Internet at places other than work or home is of most interest.
Table 3: Percentage of individuals who accessed the Internet at their place of work
(other than home) in the last 3 months
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
EU27
:
:
18
21
22
25
EU25
:
:
19
21
23
26
EU15
17
19
21
23
24
27
Euro area
14
16
17
20
22
26
Belgium
:
:
:
18
21
23
Bulgaria
:
:
6
:
10
12
Czech
:
13
14
14
20
21
Republic
Denmark
32
35
41
37
46
43
Germany
17
16
18
20
27
30
Estonia
:
:
20
20
28
27
Ireland
:
13
15
17
23
22
Greece
6
7
9
10
12
15
Spain
9
16
18
20
22
23
France
:
:
:
.
18
25
Italy
14
14
15
16
17
18
Cyprus
:
:
14
14
17
20
Latvia
:
:
17
18
22
22
Lithuania
:
10
12
15
17
19
24
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
Luxembourg 21
26
27
26
32
34
Hungary
:
:
10
17
19
21
Malta
:
:
:
16
14
18
Netherlands :
30
:
36
39
43
Austria
21
19
24
25
29
32
Poland
:
:
9
11
13
14
Portugal
9
13
15
15
16
17
Romania
:
:
4
:
7
8
Slovenia
:
:
20
23
28
28
Slovakia
:
:
26
27
26
29
Finland
31
35
37
38
39
39
Sweden
37
36
37
40
38
42
United
26
27
29
31
30
32
Kingdom
Macedonia,
:
:
5
:
4
:
the former
Yugoslav
Republic of
Turkey
:
:
5
6
:
:
Iceland
:
38
41
47
49
56
Norway
:
40
41
47
47
48
Source: Eurostat, 2008.
Figure 5: Individuals who accessed the Internet at their place of work (other than home)
in EU27, EU25, EU15, Euro area
Individuals who accessed the Internet at their
place of work (other than home)
30
28
26
24
t
EU27
EU25
22
er cen
EU15
p 20
Euro area
18
16
14
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
Source: Eurostat, 2008.
The work environment of mobile eWorkers is primarily – but not solely – described by the
place of work. For the purposes of this study secondary and tertiary workplaces are of some
interest. Examples are telework/business office, guest office, and home (if not the main
workplace), which are regularly work places, and instant offices in a hotel, café, Internet café
or outdoors and moving workplaces in public transport vehicles, etc.
25
Besides the place of work, the work environment of mobile eWorkers can be influenced by
the time of work (especially in a leisure time environment) and by environmental conditions
such as temperature and weather, especially in the case of outdoor work.
Instant offices can be furnished with portable items such as special bags with a hard cover (of
reinforced plastic) to place a laptop on or suitcases with a fold-out tray, table or desk. A
portable laptop table, for example, consists of a table top and adjustable leg.
Photograph 2: A portable laptop table
The physical workplace of mobile eWorkers can be described as a combination of:
· Deficient work settings, i.e. missing furniture + PSs designed for short term use;
· Spaces such as vacant offices, meeting rooms, cafés, airplanes, cars, public transport
vehicles, outdoors;
· Environments such as streets, airports, natural environments, family home;
· Detrimental conditions such as work in free time, bad weather, too much sunlight, low or
high temperatures and other less than favourable environmental influences;
· ICT support different from that at a permanent work place;
· Lack of informal social contacts with colleagues and face-to-face meetings.
It is apparent that the work environment of mobile eWorkers is much worse than that of
stationary workers, both in terms of “real” and “virtual” work settings, space and
environmental conditions and in terms of mental/social space requirements. Furthermore, in
the majority of cases this working environment changes during a work day and cannot be
controlled by the employer.
2.3 Survey of the use of portable systems among the working population
2.3.1 Extent of, and increase in, use
Mobile eWork can be defined as high-intensity mobile work in the course of which an online
connection to the Internet and/or to company computer systems is used.
26
According to the data from SIBIS (SIBIS 2002/2003), 28% of EU15 workers spent some paid
working time doing mobile work in 2002. The number of high intensity mobile workers24 was
roughly half of this (15%), and 4% of the EU15 work force in 2002 were meWorkers (Gareis
2006).
67% of these mobile workers spent more than 7 hours per day (unweighted average) on the
move, while 38% were on the move for more than 17 hours. It seems obvious that for this
group of workers PSs are of high importance, as PSs give them the opportunity to do eWork
during travel time and to be reachable by their colleagues and/or customers.
Figure 6: Time spent on the move by mobile workers25 26
2 hours and less
15%
17 hours and more
38%
3-6 hours
18%
7-16 hours
29%
Source: SIBIS General Population Survey, 2002.
As we can find from the Fourth European Working Conditions Survey (European Survey of
Working Conditions 2007), a considerable proportion of people (almost 30%) never or almost
never work at company’s premises. Around 15% works always or almost always outside their
home or company’s premises. Twice as many do so at least a quarter of the time.
The percentage of mobile eWorkers among the total EU15 workforce grew from 1.5% to 4%
in the course of only three years (1999-2002) (Gareis 2006) with a trend towards further
growth (the share in Finland had already reached 6.2%). There is much evidence that mobile
eWork will continue to increase. According to the Working Life Barometer 2002 (Ministry of
Labour, Finland) almost 40% of wage and salary earners carried out work tasks in their
leisure time by means of a connection to their employer via mobile phone or ICT network
(Gareis 2006).
Figure 7 shows that about 38% of EU15 workers are tele-cooperating and about 12% are
doing multi-locational eWork27:
24 High-intensity mobile workers are those who do so for 10 hours or more per week.
25 Unweighted average for EU15, CH and USA. Base: All mobile workers (n = 1277). (Gareis 2006). The number of hours
has been rounded to whole numbers.
26 For instance in 2002 15.4 % of EU15 workers were high intensity mobile workers and about 6 % of all workers average 17
hours and more on the move. Base: All persons employed (N=5,901), weighted; averages weighted by EU15/NAS10
population. Source: SIBIS 2002/2003, GPS.
27 Source: New Global 2007.
27
Figure 7: Multilocational eWork and Tele-cooperation (EU15)
Multilocational eWork and Tele-cooperation
Tele-cooperation
Multilocational eWork
60
50
40
tn
30
r ceep
20
10
0
DK
FI
US
SE
UK
CH
DE
NL
LU
BE
IE
AT
IT
FR
ES
EL
PT
EU
Source: Gareis, 2006, based on data from SIBIS 2002/2003, see Empirica 2002 in New Global 2007.
The next table (table 4) shows that 35% of all employees in companies using ICT (in EU10
countries) have remote access to their company’s computer network.
Table 4: Internet access and access to company’s computer networks in Europe (EU10)
Companies with Companies with Share of
Remote access
Internet access
broadband
employees with
to company’s
Internet access
Internet access* network
Weighting scheme
% of
% of
% of
% of
% of
% of
% of
% of
empl.
firms
empl.
firms
empl.
firms
empl.
firms
Total(EU10)
95
93
76
69
n.a.
43
35
16
By firm size
Micro (1-9 empl)
89
62
n.a.
51
12
Small (10-49 empl.)
98
75
n.a.
29
22
Medium (50-249 empl.)
99
83
n.a.
33
43
Large (250+ empl.)
99
84
n.a.
44
60
By sector
Food & beverages
95
88
72
64
n.a.
25
35
14
Footwear
96
89
75
62
n.a.
28
17
10
Pulp & paper
99
94
80
68
n.a.
40
56
21
ICT manufacturing
100
99
84
79
n.a.
74
69
35
Consumer electronics
98
97
87
74
n.a.
80
51
32
Shipbuilding & repair
100
100
87
86
n.a.
30
41
27
Construction
95
90
72
64
n.a.
47
25
13
Tourism
93
90
72
68
n.a.
53
38
13
Telecommunication
100
99
88
85
n.a.
90
74
46
Hospital activities
100
98
85
78
n.a.
41
39
34
*Read: “In the companies surveyed, on average, 43% of employees have access to the Internet at their workplace”
Source: eBuisness Watch, 2007.
It is interesting to see that the high rate of mobile eWorkers and persons tele-cooperating in
Finland is at least partly the result of direct and indirect support by the government and its
28
ministries (eWork 2001 and eWork 2002, 2001/2002, p. 70). The next diagram (figure 8)
shows the rates of different types of eWork in Finland in 1999 (in % of all enterprises).
Figure 8: Enterprises practising different types of eWork in Finland
60
48.16
45
28.2
per cent
25.93
22.4
30
15
0
Home-based
Self-employed
Mobile eWork
Any kind of
eWork
eWork
regular eWork
Source: ECaTT study from 2000 (Ten Countries in Comparison, Bonn, 2000-06-08), eWork 2002 and eWork 2003, p. 69
(ECaTT 2000).
It is much more common to find the new technologies supporting mobile eWork (multi-
locational teleworking) – approximately one European employer in ten – than teleworking
based solely at home. Furthermore, we can see from the next chart that employers are already
making significant use of ICT to carry out work remotely (eWork 2001 and eWork 2002,
2001/2002, p.27).
29
Figure 9: eWork in Europe by type of eWork (in %)
Any eWork
49
Any eEmployees
11.8
Employees working in remote back offices
6.8
Multi-locational teleworking employees
9.9
Home-based teleworking employees
1.4
Remote call centre in company-owned back office
1.4
(outside own region)
Employees working in telecentres, telecottages or
0.9
other office premises owned by third parties
Cal centre employees in telecottage or telecentre 0.3
Any eOutsourcing (outsourcing using a
43
telecommunications link to deliver work)
eLancers (freelancers using telecommunicatons link to
11.4
deliver work)
eOutsourcing within own region
34.5
eOutsourcing to other region in own country
18.3
eOutsourcing to companies in other countries
5.3
Outsourced call centre
15
Outsourced call centre with telecommunications links
11.1
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
per cent
Source: EMERGENCE European Employer Survey, 2000 (IES/NOP) Weighted figures; % of establishments with >50
employees in EU15 plus Hungary, Poland and Czech Republic. Weighted base: 7305 cases.
The use of PSs very much depends on the quality of ICT support for mobile workers in terms
of usefulness and usability. It can therefore be assumed that the numbers of mobile eWorkers
will increase in line with the rapid increase in the number of people using a PS occasionally
for their work. Taking into account the micro-mobility of workers, it can even be expected
that in future nearly every worker will use a PS for his/her occupation, albeit not in all cases
with high intensity.28
Under some circumstances, time and place of work no longer seem to be relevant and the
boundaries between working time and leisure time seem to be disappearing. Once workers use
PSs, they choose different working locations, such as other locations belonging to their
28 Mobile eWorkers are those mobile workers using ICT/PSs with high intensity.
30
employer, clients’ premises, hotels and meeting venues, teleservice centres and temporary
locations while on the move. The possibility of communicating and interacting with
colleagues and customers by means of PSs will lead to the habitual use of such systems by
every worker, as can be predicted from the current use of mobile phones.
2.3.2 Categories and numbers of workers affected
While still regarded by many as “executive toys”, PSs are increasingly used by sales persons,
technical support, delivery, restaurant and maintenance staff, etc.29
As indicated by the increase in the numbers of mobile eWorkers, the relationship between
physical mobility and ICT support for work, namely in the form of environments for mobile
eWork, is a strong one. By avoiding disconnection from communication and information
networks ICT support allows closer contact with customers and value chain partners. It also
allows more efficient use of otherwise unproductive time, especially during travel. Therefore
mobile eWork can be expected to keep growing rapidly over the coming years (Gareis 2006).
The indicator SIBIS (SIBIS 2002/2003) shows that 66% of EU15 workers are interested in
some type of telework, while in Denmark, for example, the figure is 79%.
The BISER (BISER 2004) statistics from 2003 (table 5) focus on the European regions and
show for the BISER region30 of “Central Macedonia” a share of 0.5% mobile eWorkers
(compared with 55% for mobile phone users, 25% for computer users and 12% for Internet
users). By contrast, the “Berkshire, Buckinghamshire, Oxfordshire” region was reported as
having 13.3% mobile “teleworkers” (mobile eWorkers) – and additionally 18.5% teleworking
at home – compared with 80% mobile phone users, 78% computer users, 72% Internet users).
The average of mobile eWorkers over all BISER regions in 2003 was 4.7%, a number which
is comparable with the 2002 EU15 rate of 4% (SIBIS).
Mobile work can cause a number of problems related to an interrupted communication flow
between mobile workers and their colleagues, superiors and customers. Because ICT supports
mobile workers, it also makes it possible to increase mobile work, and ICT plays a powerful
role as a driver of physically mobile work (Gareis 2006). The BISER data indicates that there
is indeed a trend – made possible by ICT – towards the use of multiple locations for working:
most persons who spend time eWorking at one “atypical” working location do so at other
types of working location as well. It seems that once workers are equipped with a PS and
remote access, they are willing (or asked) to work wherever it suits their tasks, demands or
personal preferences (BISER 2004).
Regarding the proportion of weekly working time spent at mobile working locations, there is
a wide spectrum: some mobile eWorkers spend almost their complete working time at mobile
locations, others only a few hours per week (BISER 2004). As BISER data shows, it can be
assumed that the percentage of mobile eWorkers decreases with increasing distance from
economic centres and communication nodes, so the picture is not an equally clear one in all
BISER regions (BISER 2004).
The BISER project found a core-periphery pattern of diffusion of phenomena such as multi-
locational work and tele-cooperation and of employment in ICT-producing and utilising
29 63% of companies in the region of Stuttgart, Germany, supply their employees with a mobile phone; source:
http://www.livinglabs-europe.com/
30 The BISER study defines specific regions for the analysis.
31
sectors and occupations. This general pattern is influenced, however, by a significant north-
south divide. The diffusion of mobile eWork (and tele-cooperation) appears to be determined
less by national factors than by centrality of location within each Member State, and overall
levels of regional income as measured by GDP (gross domestic product) per capita. This is
especially true for tele-cooperation (BISER 2004).
Table 5: Spread of multi-locational work and tele-cooperation in BISER regions
Region
Multi-locational work
Tele-cooperation
Teleworking at
Mobile
Any
home
teleworking
Brittany, FR
0.9
1.7
2.6
29.1
Castile-Leon, ES
2.5
1.3
3.0
17.7
Central Macedonia,
3.0
0.5
3.5
2.4
MK
Ile-de-France, FR
3.3
3.5
6.3
47.2
Languedoc-
3.4
3.4
5.6
26.8
Roussillon, FR
Catalonia, ES
4.5.
2.9
6.2
26.2
Nord/Pas-de-Calais,
4.5
4.0
7.6
34.4
FR
Tuscany, IT
4.6
1.4
6.1
30.5
Sicily, IT
5.2
1.4
5.9
21.5
Lazio, IT
6.2
7.3
10.7
27.1
Lombardy, IT
6.5
5.7
11.0
38.7
Liege, BE
6.7
4.1
9.2
34.7
Lisboa e Vale do
7.0
5.9
11.2
37.9
Tejo, PT
Tees Valley and
8.2
4.6
11.0
38.7
Durham, GB
Friesland, DE
8.6
4.7
11.1
38.9
Salzburg, AT
8.7
1.7
9.3
52.3
Mecklenburg-West
8.9
4.9
11.3
41.5
Pomerania, DE
Border, Midlands and 9.1
3.1
11.7
31.2
Western, IE
Central Finland, FI
9.7
5.3
13.4
40.3
Magdeburg, DE
9.8
2.6
10.8
38.4
Braunschweig, DE
10.0
3.9
13.4
46.1
Greater Manchester,
11.7
8.2
16.0
43.4
GB
Leicestershire,
12.0
7.4
15.7
53.5
Rutland, Northants.
GB
Stuttgart, DE
12.0
7.4
15.7
53.5
Fyn, DK
12.8
4.1
14.2
43.8
Smaland and Islands, 14.3
8.7
18.8
48.6
SE
Berk-, Buckingham-, 18.5
13.3
26.7
61.1
Oxfordshire, GB
Darmstadt, DE
20.5
4.9
22.7
55.6
AVERAGE
8.7
4.7
11.6
38.9
Source: BISER RPS 2003, weighted.
A precondition for the use of PSs for computing and communication activities for
professional purposes is the connection of such systems to a communication network, either
the Internet, an extranet or a company’s computer network. For this reason, statistical data
32
about the possibility of remote access to company computers is of some interest. For example,
the Eurostat E-commerce (electronic commerce) database (Data 2001-2002) shows that in
Austria in 2001 85% of enterprises were already using the Internet. Only 4% answered that
they either were not planning to use the Internet or did not yet know, while from 7% answers
were not available. The survey covered the business activities manufacturing, distribution,
hotels & accommodation, transport & communication, auxiliary financial services and
business services, with the use of Internet differing very little between the categories. In the
field of financial activities the use of ICT is traditionally high, while small companies do not
use the Internet as much as large ones.
Among enterprises with a web presence by far the most common services provided were the
marketing of products (81% of enterprises with a web presence) and facilitating access to
catalogues and price lists (44%). Among other Internet services, the use of the web to deliver
digital products was particularly important in business services, and this sector and the
transport and communications sector were the most likely to provide mobile Internet services
(8% of enterprises with a web presence).31 Among the EU15 5% of all enterprises provide
mobile Internet services, which is again an indicator of occupational Internet use.
Bearing in mind the increase in Internet and computer use since 2002, it seems reasonable to
assume that by now about 25% or even more of the population in the above-mentioned
countries is equipped with PSs that allow access to the Internet. We can assume that this
number is increasing rapidly and across all countries because most mobile phones now
produced and sold are Internet-enabled. However, the number of Internet-enabled phones is
not a reliable measure of the number of people actually using this function. With regard to the
occupational use of PSs these numbers again are only useful as indicators of the increase in
use.
Table 6: Access to Internet through selected devices, 2002 (%)
DK DE EL ES(1) IT
LU AT PT FI
SE (2) UK
Proportion of households with access to Internet (3)
Have access to Internet
56
43
12
17
27
40
31 16
44
:
50
Have no access to Internet 44
57
87
83
71
60
65 84
56
:
50
Households with access to Internet: proportion with access through selected devices (multiple
answers possible) (3)
Desktop computer
95
92
96
95
:
91
92 90
84
91
85
Portable computer
15
14
6
8
:
19
16 10
17
19
18
Handheld computer
2
1
0
0
:
5
2
:
:
2
:
Television (digital
0
1
0
0
:
1
3
:
:
5
8
television or set top box)
Mobile phone used alone
6
8
6
1
:
15
13
9
16
8
10
(WAP, GPRS)
Games console
0
1
0
:
:
4
4
:
:
5
:
Other device
0
1
0
0
:
0
1
:
:
5
:
(1) Other device includes games console.
(2) Mobile phone used alone includes also mobile phone used with a portable computer.
(3) Proportion of do not know / no answer is not shown.
Source: Information society statistics, Data 1996 – 2002, THEME 4: Industry, trade and service, 2003 edition, European
Communities, Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, Luxembourg.
31 E-commerce and the Internet in European businesses, Data 2001 – 2002, European Communities, 2003, Office for Official
Publications of the European Communities, Luxembourg.
33
In 2006 21% of EU27 enterprises had employees working for part of their time off the
enterprise premises but with access to the enterprise's IT systems. The next table does not
answer the question of categories and numbers of involved workers; however, the increasing
number of employers providing access to their IT-system from remote locations is again an
indicator of the growing importance of the occupational use of PSs, especially the rate of 11%
of enterprises whose IT systems are used during business travel.
Figure 10: Enterprises providing access to their IT systems for employees working part
time away from enterprise premises
EU 27 enterprises providing access to their IT systems
for employees working part time away from enterprise
premises
25
away from workplace
23
21
19
during business travel,
t 17
from hotel, airport etc.
15
er cen 13
p
from customers or
11
other business
9
partners' premises
7
from other locations of
5
the same enterprise or
2004
2005
2006
group
Notes: All enterprises with 10 employed persons or more, excluding the financial sector.
Source: Eurostat, 2008.
Figure 11 shows the proportion of employees accessing their enterprise’s IT systems while
away from their enterprise premises. Many of them will probably use PSs for this purpose. It
seems illogical for about half of all employed persons to be working part of their time away
from their enterprise premises and then access the relevant IT systems on their return. In
combination with the above diagram the author interprets these statistics as follows: In 2006
21% of all EU27 enterprises had employees working part of their time away from company’s
premises who accessed the enterprise's IT systems. 47% of all employees working in such
enterprises belonged to this category of workers. As a result, if the author is correct, about
10% of all employed persons in the EU27 work part of their time away from their company’s
or organisation’s premises but retain access to their enterprise’s IT systems while doing so.
34
Figure 11: Employees working part of their time away from their enterprise premises
and accessing the enterprise IT systems (EU27)
Employees accessing their enterprise's IT systems while
working away from the office
60
55
50
44
47
t 45
40
35
er cenp 35
30
25
20
2004
2005
2006
Notes: All enterprises with 10 employed persons or more, excluding the financial sector.
Source: Eurostat, 2008.
Trying to categorize mobile eWorkers and going into more detail by using case studies or
scenarios would highlight the particular characteristics of such sectors as engineering,
manufacturing or healthcare.
The engineering sector is knowledge-intensive and needs access to global competencies and
information. It involves complex processes and products and widely dispersed stakeholders,
and requires a multi-functional perspective.
The manufacturing sector constantly needs to improve productivity and quality, and requires
the development of production processes.
The healthcare sector is knowledge-intensive, involves team work, widely dispersed
stakeholders and complex processes, and constantly needs to improve productivity, service
and quality, and to guarantee continuity of care.
Analysing the use of ICT and PSs in the above-mentioned sectors, no distinction could be
found from a generic point of view that could help to define categories of affected workers for
the purposes of this study.
One challenge from the perspective of mobile eWorkers is to explore how portable
technology can be used to empower workers (individuals and teams) to build innovative work
environments.
PSs can support access to data (information, knowledge) and facilitate collaboration. In the
future, most workers in developed economies will need access to data and support through
collaboration. With an increasing need for flexibility and mobility, the number of mobile
eWorkers (and the use of PSs) will increase further.
35
For studying the impact on occupational health and safety, types of work, categories of
workers, and types of PSs are of less importance than the work environment of mobile
eWorkers.
2.3.3 Typical activities and tasks
Office workers and knowledge workers mostly use PSs for asynchronous e-mail
communication and provision of data (information) or the use of their company’s software
applications. Knowledge workers live in a “virtual environment” using collaboration tools.
Non-office workers in sectors such as field maintenance and healthcare are mainly connected
to their company’s computer systems using special applications.32 SIBIS (SIBIS 2002/2003)
data from 2002 shows that 92.4% of meWorkers communicate via asynchronous e-mails and
about 70% use the Internet, an extranet33 or the company’s applications. Besides e-mails the
typical office applications, such as address book and calendar, are of major importance for all
mobile eWorkers. Thus – back in the main office or at home – synchronisation of related data
(and of e-mails with an e-mail management and archiving application) is an important ICT-
related task. Synchronisation also guarantees a back-up of such data. Data from SIBIS shows
that activities are also being carried out on the move and not only in instant offices: 37% used
PSs for data transfer in such a situation.
Figure 12. Activities of mobile eWorkers in 2002
Purpose cited by the 4% of mobile eWorkers who use
computer connections when travelling (multiple response)
100
80
per cent
60
40
20
0
Accessing the
Sending or reading e- Connecting to their
Internet
mails
company's internal
computer system
Notes: Base: All persons employed (N=5,100); weighted by EU15 population.
Source: SIBIS 2002, GPS.
As figure 12 shows, after telephone conversations receiving (and sending) emails is the most
relevant activity for which PSs are used. E-mail is used less for outgoing34 than for incoming
communication, and it is much less frequently used for managing urgent situations than the
32 The European Commission’s status report “eWork 2001” eWork 2001 and eWork 2002, 2001/2002 used the categories
self-employed, managers, other white collars and manual workers.
33 In 2007 16 % of all EU27 enterprises used extranets (Eurostat, all enterprises, excluding the financial sector (10 employees
or more)).
34 For convenience.
36
mobile phone35. Furthermore, e-mail was mostly used by those survey participants who stayed
overnight away from home; the typical scenario was to check e-mails at a hotel (Gareis 2006).
Women are much less likely to be mobile eWorkers than men. 71% of all multi-locational
workers are male. Together with the results of earlier empirical research, this result indicates
that the increase in work-related (geographical) mobility which has been made possible by
ICT affects male more than female members of the workforce. Based on BISER we can
conclude that men enjoy more ICT-enabled geographical flexibility than women (BISER
2004).
Mobile non-office workers are often not mobile eWorkers, because they do not use ICT very
intensively. Their use of PSs tends to be more occasional.
When trying to categorize typical activities and tasks a distinction can and should be made
between mobile white-collar workers – who mainly use PSs as a tool for management and
office tasks – and other workers – who mainly use PSs for their work schedule and for
background information.
Typical activities and tasks using PSs can be described using the categories mobile blue-collar
workers and other workers. White-collar workers are often mobile eWorkers (high-intensity
ICT users) while blue-collar workers tend to use PSs only occasionally. PSs are ICT tools
used for ICT-related activities regardless of the sector of use; therefore the work
environment of mobile workers, which differs very much between office workers and
others, is of greater importance for occupational health and safety.
2.3.4 Types of work with portable devices and possible OSH risks and OSH management
problems
Car manufacturers, telecommunications companies, utilities, security forces, international
peace-keeping organisations, hospitals, power suppliers, etc. – all these categories of
companies and organisations use PSs. From the point of view of possible OSH risks and OSH
management problems three different types of work with portable devices can be identified:
· mobile office work, for which changing working environments and longer periods of
concentrated work are typical;
· working with portable devices in the technical support and logistics sectors, for which
changing working environments and unfavourable working posture are typical;
· visual display units in vehicles, for which concurrent demands from driving and
communication are typical.
35 Found by an empirical study of a group of meWorkers. O’Hara K, Perry M, Sellen A, Brown B (2002). “Exploring the
Relationship between Mobile Phone and Document Activity during Business Travel”.
37
Table 7: Examples of types of work with portable devices and the related typical OSH
risks and OSH management problems
Types of work with portable
Typical OSH risks
Typical OSH management
devices (examples)
problems
Mobile office work
§ Longer periods of
§ Limited control by the
§ Business work
work at non-
employer
§ Health care in hospitals
ergonomic work
§ Changing working
§ Insurance agents
environments
environment
§ Door-to-door retailing
§ Stress
§ How to conduct risk
§ Insufficient integration
assessment?
into organisational
flow of information
Working with portable devices in
§ Ergonomic risks
§ Changing working
the technical support and
§ Stress
environment
logistics sectors
§ Eyesight risks
§ Unfavourable working
§ Engine field service
§ Accident risks at
posture
and diagnostics
dangerous
§ Limited control by the
§ Electrical appliance
workplaces
employer
installation and
§ How to conduct risk
maintenance
assessment?
§ Telecommunication
network services and
maintenance
§ Gas and power suppliers
§ Aircraft services and
maintenance
Visual display units in vehicles
§ Accident risks
§ Limited control of the
§ Pilots
through distraction
employees’ behaviour
§ Airport ground
§ Stress through
by the employer
operations
communication while
§ Ambulance services
driving
and emergency care
§ Public transport
2.3.5 How portable systems influence the boundary between work hours and private time
A new question, introduced in 2005 into the European survey on working conditions, assesses
the extent to which work impinges on non-working life. It asks workers whether they are
contactable in connection with their main paid job outside normal working hours. The growth
of faster communication technologies (phone lines, mobile phones and broadband Internet/e-
mail) over the past five years has made such contact possible for the majority of Europeans.
For certain categories of workers, or rather for those with particular roles – e.g. supervisory
responsibilities, or the self-employed – this can blur the boundaries between work and non-
work. The same communication technologies that make contact possible may also make
further work possible, effectively extending working hours. In essence, this can be seen as a
form of negative “flexibility”. It is notable that managers (those with staff working under their
supervision) report this type of contact more than do other workers, and that men, in general,
appear to be more affected than women (European survey on working conditions 2007).
About 18% of workers have out-of-hours contact every day or a least once a week, extending
their working time to more than 45 hours a week. It seems obvious that mobile eWorkers and
mobile workers will have an even higher rate.
38
Figure 13: Extent of out-of-hours contact by length of average working week, EU27 (%)
every day
at least once a week
a couple of times a month less often
never
100%
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%
fewer than 10
10-30
31-35
36-40
41-45
more than 45
hours per
hours per
week
week
Source: European survey on working conditions 2007.
About 28% of men with supervisory responsibilities have out-of-hours contact every day or at
least once a week. The lower rate for women probably results from the smaller number of
women in roles with supervisory responsibilities.
ICT tools to support knowledge management in global process distribution and global
networked organisations are tools that set up a “virtual world” with workers in different time
zones. It is immediately apparent that knowledge workers in global teams cannot work with
their colleagues only asynchronously (by using e-mail or collaboration tools). There is also a
need for synchronous communication and data exchange. This will lead to a situation where
traditional working time patterns are much less important than they are today. Together with
the irrelevance of the place of work for many collaborative activities (especially for some
mobile workers), we can see a development towards working in a “virtual world” irrespective
of time and workplace. This development will first affect knowledge workers.
A key topic in the discussion of individualised forms of virtual collaboration is their impact
on the balance between work and family commitments. Data from a representative survey of
Finnish workers leaves no doubt that ICT – in combination with new management practices –
has enabled work to “slop over” into leisure time, to the possible detriment of the interests of
the family. The question is whether this blurring of boundaries which have traditionally drawn
a clear line between work and private life impacts negatively on the health of the individuals
affected. The large majority of knowledge workers who use ICT (including mobile phones) to
stay connected to their work during their leisure time do not mind.36 One explanation is that
they realise that they also benefit from the increased flexibility in managing work and leisure
time schedules. Knowledge workers use ICT to extend their working hours, in particular using
36 However, 42 % of employed people in Germany, for example, have an e-mail address, and according to a study of
BITKOM that was mentioned in the German newspapers (21 August 2008, WAZ, Der Westen), 37 % of them would like
to have pre-defined days without any duty to read e-mails.
39
spare time during commuting for work-related tasks, but this is not necessarily considered a
problem by those concerned. Most studies of individualised virtual collaboration find longer
working hours are the result of working remotely. Remote workers are often unable to
“shut off the stress response after the end of the work day”, and that this “contributes to
the wear and tear on the body.” They conclude that” lack of time for rest and recovery
from work could be an even more important health risk in modern society than the
actual level of stress during work”. A study based on data from a comprehensive sample of
the Swedish workforce has shown that perceived work-life imbalances are associated with a
higher likelihood of gastrointestinal and cardiac problems and higher frequency of mood and
sleep disturbances and headaches (New Global 2007).
Although the BISER data confirms the results from other research that eWorkers tend to work
longer hours than non-eWorkers (see above), the interrelation may be less straightforward
than it seems. Recent research to control for other variables which can be expected to
influence working hours as well (occupation and occupational status, sector, tasks, decision-
making power, etc.) suggests that eWork itself does not impact on working hours, but rather
occurs in jobs that anyway tend to be characterised by long working hours (BISER 2004).
According to the 2002 Working Life Barometer for Finland, a country which has pioneered
mobile phone use, almost 40% of wage and salary earners have been carrying out work tasks
in their leisure time by means of a connection to their employer via mobile phone or ICT
network (Gareis 2006).
A case study on mobile and distributed work by knowledge workers showed that the
employees were working mainly in their offices, meeting in other places and at home.
However, they spent a considerable amount of time outside their office, i.e. travelling or
attending meetings and inspections. During business trips, they also worked in airports, trains,
hotel rooms and in customers’ offices using PSs. The personnel had flexible working hours
and were used to working with mobile phones, laptops and videoconferences provided by the
company.
That study revealed three major problems caused by distributed and mobile teamwork:
(i) Lack of shared project identity,
(ii) Lack of shared understanding of the project totality,
(iii) Lack of trust and collaboration between headquarters and regions.37
2.3.6 Possible evolution of the technology and future use of portable systems
The main corporate goals associated with the use of PSs are an increase in mobile workers’
productivity, enhancement of interactions with customers and improvement in the
collaboration with colleagues and partners. The most important factors in achieving such
goals are improvements in data availability and better communication. Innovative new
services characterized as unified communication will go beyond voice to video, instant
communication, and video conferencing, applications that already are used today by
knowledge workers and managers.
37 Virpi Ruohomäki “Distributed and Mobile Work – promoting Collaboration with the Teamwork Game” in: Matti
Vartiainen (Ed.): Workspace Methodologies – Studying Communication, Collaboration and Workscapes, Helsinki
University of Technology, Report 2006/3, Espoo.
40
The development of Internet services and applications and tools using the Internet is well in
line with these goals. For the purposes of this study, the current ideas and discussions around
the evolution of the Internet can best be dealt with by reference to the conceptual ideas of
Web 2.0. The most important Web 2.0 concept is that the Internet is not only a
communication network, but also an electronic platform for computing tasks that can run on
servers or even on local systems. This important concept is not new: it has already been
implemented by Application Service Providing (ASP)38. The ASP concept is particularly
important for PSs, because with it the design of PSs can be concentrated on the support of
communication tasks, whilst computing tasks are then run on an Internet platform. This opens
the way for small and lightweight PSs and especially for wearable systems. The
human/machine interface can be designed for communication tasks, for transmitting
commands and for viewing results.
Mobility, multimedia and the explosion of communities are three major trends in the
information society today. PSs enable mobility supporting multimedia communication within
communities.
Some universities, research institutes and companies around the world (for example, in
California, Pennsylvania, Australia, Austria, Japan, Sweden, etc.) have been developing – and
since 2008 selling – products with brain/computer interfaces based on electroencephalography
(EEG) technology. EEG is the measurement of electrical activity produced by the brain as
recorded by electrodes placed on the scalp39. Brain waves and muscle, skin or nerve activity
are detected by sensors attached to a headband40. The person’s intended move can be
“translated” into navigation commands, even for already implemented user interfaces. This
research reveals the potential for the development of innovative user interfaces for portable
and wearable systems.
2.4 Technological development and nanotechnology
Web 2.0 is a term describing the main trend in the use of World Wide Web (WWW)
technology and web design that aims to enhance creativity, information sharing and, most
notably, collaboration among users.41 Although the term suggests a new version of the
WWW, it refers not to an update of any technical specifications, but to changes in the ways
software developers and end-users use the Web.42
Web 2.0 websites allow users to do more than just retrieve information. They can build on
interactive facilities to provide “network as a platform” computing, allowing users to run
software applications entirely through a browser. Users can own the data on a website and
exercise control over that data. These sites may have an “architecture of participation” that
encourages users to add value to the application as they use it.43
What is the relevance of Web 2.0 ideas for mobile workers/mobile eWorkers and the further
development of ICT tools, especially PSs, supporting their work? Mobility, multimedia use
38 An application service provider (ASP) is a business that provides computer-based services to customers over a network.
Software offered using an ASP model is also sometimes called On-demand software or software as a service (SaaS),
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/application_service_provider.
39 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/electroencephalography
40 This technology is currently being launched in products for medical use and in gaming tools.
41 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/web_2.0
42 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/web_2.0
43 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_2.0
41
and the explosion of communities are the three major trends in the information society today.
We can forecast that these trends will also influence the behaviour of workers and will
dominate the future development of ICT solutions. The Internet as a “virtual world” will be
used to collaborate on such platforms and to transform results back into reality.44
Furthermore, the “Internet of Things”45 imports real objects (and subjects) into the Internet,
thus giving data (information) about an object’s/subject’s attributes, such as position or
direction of movement. This approach includes things that cannot have communication
behaviours of their own.
In computing, ambient intelligence (AmI) refers to electronic environments that are sensitive
and responsive to the presence of people. In an ambient intelligence world, devices and
systems work in concert to support people in carrying out their everyday activities and tasks
using data (information, knowledge) that is hidden in the network connecting these devices
and systems. As these devices and systems become smaller, more connected and more
integrated into our environment, the technology disappears into our surroundings until only
the user interface remains perceivable by users.46
The ambient intelligence paradigm builds upon ubiquitous computing and human-centric
computer interaction design and is characterized by systems and technologies that are:
· embedded: many networked devices/systems are integrated into the environment;
· context aware: these devices/systems can recognize users and their situational context;
· personalized: they can be tailored to the user’s needs;
· adaptive: they can change in response to the user;
· anticipatory: they can anticipate the user’s desires without conscious mediation47.
Ubiquitous computing is a post-desktop model of human/computer interaction in which
information processing has been thoroughly integrated into everyday objects and activities48.
In contrast to the desktop paradigm, in which a single user consciously engages a single
device/system for a specialized purpose, in ubiquitous computing many computational
devices and systems are engaged simultaneously in the course of ordinary activities, and
persons may not necessarily even be aware that they are using systems.
Bearing these trends in mind, we can forecast the application of wearable systems that use
sensors to capture data from their environment, whilst being connected to the Internet for the
support of collaborative activities. Such emerging technologies will be integrated into
innovative workplace designs and special solutions for the support of mobile workers/mobile
eWorkers.49
Other technological developments may also influence the evolution of PSs:
· Reusable paper contains a photochromic compound that makes ink disappear when hit by
direct heat.50
44 An example of this Internet usage evolution is Second Life, an Internet-based virtual world video game,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/second_life
45 In computing, the Internet of Things refers to a usually wireless and self-configuring electronic communication network
between objects, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/internet_of_things
46 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ambient_intelligence
47 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ambient_intelligence
48 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ubiquitous_computing
49 Readers interested in the development of wearable systems should read the documents provided by the EU-co-funded
project wearIT@work, such as “Empowering the Mobile Worker – Intelligent Clothing” (http://www.wearitatwork.com/).
50 http://spencerprint.blogspot.com/2008/05/at-gartner-symposiumitxpo-in-las.html
42
· Further development of tactile and touch user interfaces for computer programs with
haptic feedback methods using (multi-) touch screen displays and zooming software as a
combined input/output device, accepting even hand gestures with a writing utensil (like a
stylus), hand-writing and natural language for input. Non-command interfaces will be
implemented using sensors, cameras, and/or brain/computer interfaces which observe the
user to infer his/her intentions (see chapter above).
· Solid state memories without moving parts or mechanical actions and with miniaturized
form factors with capacities of more than 256 GB.51
· Computer systems implemented on one chip only. System-on-a-chip or system on chip
(SoC or SOC) refers to integrating all components of a computer or other electronic
system into a single integrated circuit (chip).52
· Visual display units (monitors) with three-dimensional video output that can be viewed
from different angles and exposed to direct sunlight53 or holographic displays54.
· Fuel cells55 providing electric power56.
· Very light, flexible and low-cost organic electronics57 that also can be used for electronic
paper58 or liquid crystal devices (LCD).
Nanotechnology
Last but not least, nanotechnology will have an influence on the further development of PSs.
The term “nanotechnology” refers to a field whose theme is the control of matter on an atomic
and molecular scale. Generally, nanotechnology deals with structures of the size of 100
nanometres or smaller, and involves developing materials or devices on that scale.
Nanotechnology mainly consists in the processing, separation, consolidation and deformation
of materials by one atom or one molecule.59 Nanotechnology is extremely diverse, ranging
from novel extensions of conventional device physics to completely new approaches based
upon molecular self-assembly and developing new materials with dimensions on the
nanoscale. There is even speculation as to whether we can directly control matter on the
atomic scale. Nanotechnology raises many of the same issues as the introduction of any new
technology, including concerns about the toxicity and environmental impact of nanomaterials,
their potential effects on global economics and speculation about various doomsday scenarios.
In future it will be possible to use nanotechnology to build portable ICT devices/systems,
especially portable computers. As scientists have raised concerns that the basic building
blocks of nanotechnology pose a potential new class of risk to health and the environment,60
these risks must also be considered in relation to occupational health and safety. For example,
nanotechnology is already a key technology in surface finishing. A specific risk with regard to
51 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/solid_state_disk
52 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/system-on-a-chip
53 see a product example at http://www.lightspacetech.com/
54 see a product example at http://blog.wired.com/gadgets/2008/06/usc-lab-creates.html#more
55 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/fuel_cell
56 A micro fuel cell is a portable power source for low power electronic devices that converts chemical energy into useable
electrical energy. It generates power through the electrochemical reaction of a fuel in the presence of a catalyst,
http://www.mtimicrofuelcells.com/technology/how.asp.
57 Organic electronics, or plastic electronics, is a branch of electronics that deals with carbon-based conductive polymers,
plastics, or small molecules, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/organic_electronics.
58 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/electronic_paper
59 Lauterwasser, Christoph (ed.) (2005). “Opportunities and risks of Nanotechnologies”, Allianz Group report in co-
operation with the OECD International Futures Programme, Allianz Center for Technology, München, Germany.
60 Lauterwasser, Christoph (ed.) (2005). “Opportunities and risks of Nanotechnologies”, Allianz Group report in co-
operation with the OECD International Futures Programme, Allianz Center for Technology, München, Germany.
43
occupational health and safety arises from the possibility of constructing computers so small
that they can be integrated into clothes and that such “undetectable” systems could be used to
control employees. For these reasons, the impact of nanotechnology must also be considered
when analysing the impact of portable devices/systems on occupational health and safety.61
Given these examples of the accelerated development of technology, it will be readily
understood that the development of PSs and related ICT infrastructure is unlikely to end in the
near future. With changing patterns of work organisation and altered tasks and activities, PSs
will gain in importance.
2.5 Work of tomorrow – future working patterns
Besides all the functions described in the preceding chapters, PSs have a role to play in
helping a mobile worker “on the move” to find out where, for example, appropriate spaces
and services are available at that location. PSs will function as the tool for ordering assistance,
services and resources.
However, PSs will have a much bigger role to play in enabling new forms of work. The
purposes which have traditionally required physical mobility may increasingly be achieved by
electronic means, certainly in the case of many office workers, and especially knowledge
workers. Companies are therefore constantly seeking out alternatives to physical mobility in
order to be able to control costs while still enjoying the benefits of close interconnectedness
with value chain partners and customers (Gareis 2006). Since portable technologies enable
mobile eWork, work is becoming more and more multi-locational and dispersed.
In a multilocal work environment mobile eWorkers will perform computer-supported
collaborative work (CSCW) using PSs and docking stations. New collaboration support
technologies, such as instant messaging and instant video conferencing for synchronous
communication, may well play a role similar to that of e-mail today for asynchronous
communication.
Knowledge workers of the future will use Internet applications that set up an “architecture of
participation”62 where users can contribute website content in such a way as to create network
effects. Such architecture of participation tends to foster innovation by pulling together
contributions from (widely) distributed, independent contributors. Wikis are (by now well-
known) examples of this phenomenon63. Architectures of participation can also be used to
support the work of blue collar workers “in the field”, since many types of work in this sector
also involve data/information/knowledge management. Examples of this would be: dealing
with work schedules, background information, problem-reporting or reports on work done.
“Virtual” environment issues, flexible and collaborative working practices, location-
independent approaches and incorporating emerging technologies into new workplace and
teamwork concepts will be the triggers for new work patterns in the future. The forms of work
61 Sutcliffe, Hilary; Hodgson, Simon (October 2006). “Briefing paper: An uncertain business: the technical, social and
commercial challenges presented by nanotechnology”.
62 O'Reilly and John Battelle: Opening talk of the first Web 2.0 conference, San Francisco, 2004,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/web_2.0.
63 A Wiki is a collection of web pages designed to enable anyone who accesses it to contribute or modify content, using a
simplified markup language. Wikis are often used to create collaborative websites and to power community websites. The
collaborative encyclopedia, Wikipedia, is one of the best-known wikis. Wikis are used in business to provide intranets and
knowledge management systems, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/wikis.
44
carried out by office and by non-office workers will differ in the detail; but in principle PSs
and related technologies will be able to, and indeed will, support tomorrow’s work patterns
generically.
“Virtual” environments will be connected to the real environment of the “Internet of Things”.
Passive and active sensors will monitor people’s activities, potentially without those observed
being aware of it. This poses the question as to who in future will be able to control the
“virtual” environment connected to the “Internet of Things”. Soon humans will become part
of technical systems – functioning as components, and prompting the question: who is the
device – the human or the technical environment? There is a good chance that future work
will be organised so that the worker is not the acting subject but rather the object of an
automatically controlled process. PSs in the form of wearable devices will play a large role in
this process.
2.6 Foreseeable future use of portable systems
This chapter gives a forecast for the future use of PSs. In 2008, CNET Networks64, USA,
conducted an interesting, so-called “instant poll” on their website, asking visitors to the site
which PSs they could least do without. The actual question was “Which gear is a must-
have?”65 What does this question have to do with the future use of PSs?
First of all, it seems obvious that synchronous voice communication is, and will continue to
be, the most important functionality of PSs. However, in less than 5 years all mobile phones
are expected to be Internet-capable systems.66 Why?
From a generic point of view, asynchronous and synchronous communication between
persons (and within teams) will be the most important functions, supplemented by
functionalities that support collaboration with individuals or teams. As mentioned above,
communication can best be supported by unified communication channels, collaboration by
traditional CSCW applications and – with growing importance – by Wikis67. Data
(information) will be pulled (traditional method) or pushed (instantly and actively
transferred).68 Applications such as web conferencing enable users to, for example, conduct
sales presentations, offer customer support, give product demonstrations, conduct online
training, collaborate with colleagues in workgroups and share web surfing sessions with other
users.
Secondly, typical laptop functionalities remain important today. Office workers use their
laptops mainly as text-editing machines, to write (and read) e-mails or documents, to give
presentations with slide shows, and for access to the Internet or remote access to company
computer networks. Non-office workers use their laptops mainly for special software
applications running on the laptop and for remote access to their company’s computer
network. However, all these typical functionalities can be implemented by applications
running on an Internet platform (ASP concept, including extranets). In the future, the PSs will
therefore only be used as a gateway to the Internet platform; modern and personalized
64 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CNET
65 From CNET instant poll results, http://polls.cnet.com, a no longer valid WWW address.
66 Prof. Rahim Tafazolli, The University of Surrey, England: “Next Generation 3D Internet (Post-IP) leading to 4D Mobile
Internet”, Slide show 31 January 2008, EU consultation meeting “Future Internet”.
67 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/wikis
68 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/push_e-mail
45
browsers will be the user interface for all applications and for unified communication
channels. The user will not need to know where data and/or applications are stored.
Thirdly, PSs using the Global Positioning System (GPS)69 are already common nowadays
and their use is increasing. GPS devices are able to determine their absolute location, relative
movement (speed, direction) and receive time data. This allows GPS devices to perform as a
surveying tool, as an aid to navigation or, for example, as a positioning tool for emergency
calls. Location-aware70 applications use such data. Together with the Internet of Things and
the use of RFID tags (radio-frequency identification tag is an object that can be applied to, or
incorporated into, a product, animal or person for the purpose of identification and tracking
using radio waves. Some tags can be read from several meters away and beyond the line of
sight of the reader), data about current location and direction of motion facilitates the
calculation of the optimal sequence for the performance of tasks in logistics and distribution,
for instance. Location-awareness and other data about the work environment and work
context (context-awareness71) will help PSs to assist workers in a much more straightforward
way than today. Location and context awareness can be achieved, for example, by using
sensors, cameras, brain/computer interfaces, positioning systems and databases with
background information. Future PSs will be user-, location- and context-aware. Location,
context and user attributes will be relevant input for many applications and in collaborative
tasks. For instance, such data is very useful for supporting safety precautions for fire workers
during a mission.
Fourthly, many people responding to the CNET poll replied that portable printers were a
must, thus indicating the value of traditional paper. However, a great deal of effort has been
put into producing so-called electronic paper displays72, perhaps in the form of organic
electronics73, and reusable paper (see chapter 2.4 “Technological development and
nanotechnology”). E-book readers74 are very lightweight systems that provide a crisp, clear
and paper-like image which is visible indoors and outdoors, including in full sunlight. As
soon as such systems can be used like traditional paper, portable printers will no longer be
viewed as essential.
Based on distributed object technology standards, future infrastructures and solutions will
integrate intelligent and mobile agents, location-/context-aware personalized (user-aware)
event-based communication as well as pushes of information. Mobile working will be
supported by the integration of PSs into the Internet platform. Dynamic user profiles and
context attributes will allow highly adaptive mobile services.
Future services will enable users and user groups to develop their own services, to be creative
with respect to content generation, presentation and communication, to interact with a
community of users in a group-specific manner, to explore, adjust and set up their own mobile
communication environment and information space. There will be a greater degree of
interaction with systems and devices in the user’s environment, leading to the development of
an intelligent environment that is integrated into the service delivery chain and will support
69 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GPS
70 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/location_awareness
71 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/context_awareness
72 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/electronic_paper
73 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/organic_electronics
74 http://wiki.mobileread.com/wiki/E-book_Reader_Matrix
46
advanced communication services for communities of users (adapted from “The Disappearing
Computer”, 2002).75
Furthermore, solutions for which portable systems are particularly suitable, such as mobile-to-
mobile payments or the use of portable devices for digital signatures, will become common.
In the future PSs will be used, and probably will have to be used, by all workers as the
gateway to the “virtual world” set up by the future Internet platform that will come to
dominate work environments and influence all types of work and many sorts of activities and
tasks.
Smart phones will become the ICT interface most widely used by mobile workers in the near
future; wireless peripherals such as keyboards, displays and backup devices will be
connected, new scrolling user interfaces will also provide special text entry techniques,
gesture as an interaction technique and voice input and commands (Lawo 2008).
2.7 Discussion and conclusions
Little statistical data is available about the use of PSs in an occupational environment. Most
statistics in this field are for consumer products. However, they do reveal some trends. While
in the past innovation in ICT evolved from occupational use, now innovation takes place in
consumer electronics and is subsequently adapted for occupational use.
PSs can be classified by their application-oriented design, which means that the systems are
mainly intended either for communication or for computing tasks. Systems designed for
communication tasks are more miniaturized and lighter than those designed for computing
tasks and therefore are more appropriate for supporting mobile work. For this reason, if all
PSs were adapted for the use of computing facilities via the Internet or other networks
(application service providing [ASP]), this would allow the design of PSs for communication
tasks only. Computing tasks could then be run on servers, leaving PSs to control the tasks and
receive and display the results.
Technological development will go in the direction of unified communication and information
channels that allow multimedia communication (voice, data, text and video) together with all
possible related services, such as instant teleconferencing, asynchronous communication and
event-driven information pushes.
Typical work using PSs is characterised by activities that can be and are supported by ICT
regardless of the profession or job involved. Whether people are working in customs control,
facility services, home care or as project managers, most types of mobile work (including
micro-mobility) can be – and in the future will be – supported in some way by the use of PSs.
It is therefore impossible to categorize the use of PSs by types of work or types of
professions. In contrast to service-oriented work, in production-oriented work much less ICT
support is possible. However, there is one group of workers in all professions who use ICT to
a very high degree. These are the so-called knowledge workers, who typically also use PSs
while “on the go” or “on the move”.
75 The Disappearing Computer is a EU-funded initiative of the Future and Emerging Technologies (FET) activity of the
Information Society Technologies (IST) research program, see http://www.disappearing-computer.net/, and
http://cordis.europa.eu/ist/fet/dc.htm.
47
Turning to the impact of PSs on occupational health and safety, we suggest making a
distinction between office workers and non-office workers. This distinction is mainly
connected with the considerable differences in the work environment of mobile eWorkers;
these differences lead to differences in the design of PSs, especially when they are ruggedized
or to be used outdoors.
It can be shown that the work environment of mobile eWorkers is much worse than that of
stationary workers, both in terms of real and “virtual” work settings, space and environmental
conditions and in terms of mental/social space requirements. Furthermore, in the majority of
cases this work environment changes in the course of the working day, and often cannot be
fully controlled by the employer.
Under some circumstances, the time and place of work no longer seem relevant and the
boundaries between working time and leisure time are bound to disappear. Once workers use
PSs, they choose different working locations, such as other locations belonging to their
employer, the premises of customers or clients, hotels and meeting venues, teleservice centres
and temporary locations while on the move. The possibility of communicating and interacting
with colleagues and customers by using PSs will lead to the habitual use of such systems by
every worker, a likely development given the current rate of use of mobile phones.
From the perspective of mobile eWorkers themselves, one challenge will be to explore how
portable technology can be used to empower workers (both as individuals and in teams) to
build innovative work environments. PSs can support access to data (information, knowledge)
and facilitate collaboration. In the future, in developed economies most, or even all, workers
will need access to data and the support of collaboration. With an increasing need for
flexibility and mobility, the number of mobile eWorkers (and the use of PSs) will also further
increase.
PSs are ICT tools used for ICT related activities regardless of the sector of use. Therefore the
work environment of mobile workers, which differs greatly between office and non-office
workers, is of greater importance for occupational health and safety.
Variables which can be expected to influence working hours (occupation and occupational
status, sector, tasks, decision-making power, etc.) suggest that neither eWork nor mobile
eWork nor the occasional use of PSs have, in themselves, any direct impact on working hours.
Rather they are used in jobs that anyway tend to be characterised by long working hours. The
same conclusion may well apply to the influence of PSs on the boundary between work hours
and private time, and hence on the work-life balance. Then again, the round-the-clock
availability of workers due to their mobile phones or other PSs will have some degree of
influence, depending on the personal behaviour of those involved. The use of profiles
allocating PSs to work or to private time might help to deal with this situation. Such profiles
could automatically be set dependent on time or location or other context data, such as sensor
data.
If we look at other examples of accelerated technological evolution, it can easily be imagined
that the development of PSs and the related ICT infrastructure will not end in the near future.
Indeed, as the way work is organised changes, and tasks and activities alter, PSs will gain in
importance.
“Virtual” environment issues, flexible and collaborative working practices, location-
independent approaches and emerging technologies incorporated into new workplaces and
48
teamwork concepts will trigger new developments in the working patterns of the future.
Forms of work will differ for office workers and non-office workers in the details; but in
principle PS-related technologies can and will support tomorrow’s work patterns in a generic
way.
In the future, all workers will be connected to the Internet with some type of PS, and will use
PSs, because of their micro-mobility and the need to use PSs as the gateway to the “virtual
world” set up by the Internet platform of the future. The emerging Internet platform will
dominate work environments and will influence all types of work and many activities and
tasks.
In principle, there will be no boundary between work hours and private time because of the
permanent availability of the worker and of data about his/her actual location and living
context. Profiles might help to solve the problems for the work-life balance which thus arise.
PSs are designed to be portable. The main usability design criterion is the ability to support
mobile people. The conflict between ergonomic criteria and portability may not be fully
resolvable though a special workplace design for instant offices and work places with docking
stations for mobile eWorkers at stationary points (hotels, meeting rooms, Internet cafés, other
premises belonging to their or their customer’s organisation, at home, on trains or planes)
might help. With regard to occupational safety and health, due to the fact that future PSs will
be limited to supporting communication and collaboration, wearable computers and paper-like
input-output devices may be able to meet the criteria for both ergonomics and usability.
49
III Assessment of the OSH risks
1. Psychosocial risk factors
Summary
This part of the report aims to highlight sources of psychosocial load and strain in mobile
work using portable computing and communication devices. Important stressors that have
been found include the blurring of boundaries between work and family life, increases in
working time, difficulties in supervising mobile employees and the feeling of the mobile
employees themselves that they are insufficiently involved in the company’s decisions and
have poorer career prospects. These stressors may lead to increased mental fatigue, which
may then have long-term consequences, such as impairment of the immune system,
psychosomatic diseases, sleep disorders or cardiovascular disease. Measures to reduce mental
strain in mobile workers using portable computing and communication devices include the
training and preparation of these employees for self-organisation when mobile and for
detecting and preventing stressors with potentially negative health consequences. Feed-back
routines for the evaluation of achievement should be agreed on and employees should not be
forced to be constantly available. It must also be borne in mind that the psychosocial risks
which arise may differ significantly according to the specific job and sector, whether
industrial or administrative.
Introduction
When considering the use of portable computing and communication devices and its
psychosocial implications it quickly becomes apparent that this application creates specific
working conditions that may offer a wide range of new opportunities. However, along with
positive effects, such as an increase in flexibility and autonomy, potentially negative
consequences may also develop for employees working under these conditions as well as for
their employers. These potential drawbacks include social isolation and communication
barriers.
This chapter presents the results of a literature analysis and interviews with experts on
psychosocial risk factors and resources for work with portable computing and communication
devices. Analysing the psychosocial consequences of this type of work primarily involves an
investigation into the working conditions created by the use of these devices. These specific
risk factors and resources will be presented in detail in the next part of this chapter.
To date, research in this particular field has been very limited. Hislop and Axtell (2007), for
example, found only three studies providing empirical data on mobile telework, a related
concept of work which includes the use of portable, mobile computing and communication
devices and which only recently has become a subject of scientific research. According to
Daniels et al. (2001) mobile telework is characterized as work usually involving travel and/or
spending time at the customer’s premises, whereby people doing this work may use laptop
computers, mobile phones or other mobile technical devices to support their work. Studies of
mobile telework mostly concentrate on classic mobile office employees, such as managers or
sales people.
50
However, portable computing and communication devices are also used by employees who
work on the company’s premises or at least within a narrow local radius, for example, drivers
or service engineers. Therefore, Kohn (2006) has introduced the concept of mobile ICT-
supported work (mobile information and communication technology-supported work) in
order to include all these different users of portable computing and communication devices.
Up to now, the psychosocial consequences for this wider concept have not been studied, so
this part of the study has had to concentrate on the few results that have been derived from the
field of mobile telework. In order to include more relevant results, other forms of work that
share at least some specific characteristics with ICT-supported work were also considered.
These were home-based telework, which also uses ICT for information exchange between
the teleworker and the employer and his or her colleagues, and flexible work, which
concentrates on flexible working-time arrangements but also on a high degree of self-
organization. Especially for home-based telework, broad scientific knowledge can be found
(Hislop, Axtell, 2007).
However, with respect to criteria such as influence over the job or support through ICT, these
related forms of work also differ significantly from each other in terms of the resulting strain
(see figure 14). Thus, when including results from these related work forms, careful
consideration has to be given to which scientific results can be applied to describing the risks
and resources of work using portable computing and communication devices.
Figure 14: Effects of different forms of telework from a study among members of the
three groups
100
Fixed-site Teleworker
80
Flexiworker
Mobile Worker
per 60
ce
nt
40
20
0
Influence over
Computer
Job satisfaction Ability to keep
Computers
job
facilitates work
up with
enhance
monitoring
workload
productivity
Source: Garrett, Danziger, 2007.
This chapter will show how specific psychosocial risk factors and resources were derived
from the literature. These risk factors and resources will be assigned to different categories of
stress identifiable within the work process (see Paridon et al., 2004). Additionally, the
category “personal influences” is used. The categories are:
· Work organization,
· Work content,
· Social relations at work,
· Operational and societal conditions,
· Personal influences.
The specific psychosocial resources and risk factors will be investigated and individual and
organizational consequences will be discussed.
51
The psychosocial implications of work with portable computing and communication devices
will also be considered with reference to specific illnesses or accidents caused by this form of
work, future technologies, the ageing workforce and the increasing share of women in the
workforce. To supplement the results from the literature analysis results from four expert
interviews will be provided.
Deduction of psychosocial risk factors and resources
Salanova and Schaufeli (2000) argue that it is not mere exposure to technology per se which
is responsible for health consequences, but rather mediating variables such as job
characteristics or the appraisal of exposure. This general finding can be applied when looking
at the consequences of work involving portable computing and communication devices as
well. It is not, or at least not only, the mobile use of the technology itself that leads to positive
or negative outcomes but rather the whole organizational setting and also the personal
characteristics of the users. The investigation into psychosocial risk factors and resources
focuses on these organizational and personal conditions while cognitive ergonomics focuses
on the psychological consequences of the use of portable ICT itself, mainly including aspects
of usability. These will be discussed in the next chapter.
Gajendran and Harrison (2007) developed a model to explain the psychosocial consequences
of telecommuting, a term which may be regarded as synonymous with telework (see figure
15). They consider perceived autonomy, work/family conflict (conflict between the role at
work and the role in the family) and relationship quality at work to be mediating factors in the
relationship between telecommuting and individual outcomes such as job satisfaction,
performance, turnover intention, role stress and perceived career prospects.
Figure 15: Theoretical framework for the consequences of telecommuting
Psychological Mediators
Individual Outcomes
Job
Satisfaction
Telecommuting
Perceived
intensity
Autonomy
Performance
Telecommuting
Work-Family
(flexible work location)
Conflict
Job Turnover
Intention
Relationship
quality
Role Caused
Stress
Perceived
Career
Prospects
Source: Gajendran & Harrison, 2007.
52
The model has been developed from a meta-analysis mainly including studies on home-based
telework but also some on mobile telework. Particular relationships between these variables
are proposed and have been investigated in the study. Telecommuting, for example, is
positively related to perceived autonomy, which strongly influences the effect of
telecommuting on job satisfaction. This means telecommuting has a positive influence on job
satisfaction when autonomy is perceived. Telecommuting also has direct relations to the
individual outcomes.
A substantial problem that develops from mobile telework refers to access to information as
well as information input and processing (Schulte, 1999). Technical developments in this field
have been substantial, as explained in chapter 1, but still mobile teleworkers often do not have
the same access to work-related information, and particularly informal information, as their
colleagues in the office.
Schulte (1999) and Richter et al. (2007) refer to the difficulties that mobile telework creates
for the work-life balance. Both emphasize that mobile teleworkers tend to work longer and
often do not effectively separate work from leisure time.
Salanova and Schaufeli (2000) found that the impact of the use of information technology on
the development of burnout is strongly influenced by the appraisal and experience of the
users. It should, therefore, be ensured that employees who regularly work with information
technology are thoroughly familiarised with their technical devices and feel comfortable using
them.
A study by Pérez et al. (2002) of a Spanish sample of different companies using telework
found that the major problem of telework for the companies was management by supervisors.
Richter et al. (2007) considered the psychosocial resources and risks of mobile virtual work
with a special emphasis on virtual teams. These teams included members working from very
different locations with the support of mobile ICT devices and who may therefore be
considered mobile teleworkers. The authors quote Sennett (1998), who points out that
“mobile business structures are an erosion of the employee-employer relationship and a
breakdown of the classical occupational biography”. In their opinion the consequences of the
change developing with mobile business structures have not yet been clearly identified but
Richter et al. present scientific findings that illustrate at least some of the resources and risk
factors. The workload in virtual work identified in their article refers not only to “distinct
work tasks, working hours, role conflicts, or personal concerns but also to an increasing
amount of necessary organizational and procedural regulations, and less contact with other
colleagues”.
A comparative study of virtual and non-virtual working teams by Richter et al. (2007)
revealed that virtual teams exhibited more enriched job characteristics, for example, amount
of organizational tasks, learning requirements and participation. Virtual and mobile work
places were found to be more flexible and to require intensive interaction with ICT tools.
Richter et al. (2007) also mention the difficulties arising from mobile virtual work in the areas
of collaboration and motivation. These aspects are also investigated in a study by Schulte
(1999). Schulte introduces communication problems in mobile work within the frame of the
transaction cost model (Coase, 1937 in Schulte, 1999). The model refers to costs that arise
from the need to coordinate economic relationships, for example, searching for information
about future contract partners, contract negotiation or supervision of finalising contracts. This
53
coordination is naturally more difficult and produces higher costs when the partners have to
communicate via ICT so the model may be applied to work using portable computing and
communication devices.
Motivation in this study is considered from two different perspectives. On the one hand, the
mobile-working employee may be motivated to opportunistically abuse the information
asymmetry towards the supervisor which arises from their significant autonomy by not
transferring important information or not working the agreed amount of time. On the other
hand, the study also shows how mobile ICT can negatively influence the intrinsic motivation
of the mobile worker through a feeling of supervision and control due to permanent
availability.
The psychosocial resources and risk factors involved in the use of portable information
technology at work mentioned in this introduction are combined in table 8. Variables from a
comparison by Pyöriä (2003) containing more positive and negative aspects of distributed
work, a form of work also sharing the main characteristics of mobile telework, are added.
Table 8: Assignment of resources and risk factors to forms of work load
Resources
Risk Factors
Work Organization
Flexibility
Working time: higher quantitative work-load
Communication barriers
Reduced information access and processing
Work-life balance
Permanent availability
Work content
Autonomy/Increased freedom of action
Job enrichment
Social relations at work
Lack of social support and isolation
Limited possibilities for supervision and
leadership difficulties
Operational and societal conditions
Work place insecurity
Personal Influences
Ability to self-organize
The above-mentioned categories with their risk factors and resources will be investigated in
the following section, which describes specific health and accident risks. As working
conditions in work using portable computing and communication devices can differ
significantly between individual workers, this review can only give a general insight into
resources and risk factors. Nor are the variables perfectly disjunctive. This fact may lead to
some overlaps or small repetitions in the results of the investigation. Furthermore, it must be
stated that the assignment of a factor as a resource or a risk factor is generally not
unambiguous. Most of the factors found may influence mental health positively or negatively
depending on their specific design and intensity in a particular work situation. This will
become obvious in the next section.
54
When considering telework in general and work using portable computing and
communication devices in particular, it should be borne in mind that the employees are mostly
not full-time teleworkers as they also do part of their work at the company’s premises.
1.1 Investigation into specific psychosocial resources and risk factors
1.1.1 Work organization
Flexibility
Flexibility as a whole cannot be judged good or bad. The consequences for work organization
and health in particular largely depend on arrangements decided between the employer and
the employee, as has been found by the Risk Observatory on emerging psychosocial risks
(European Agency for Safety and Health at Work, 2007). A study by Martinez et al. (2007)
comparing companies using and not using different forms of telework concludes that
teleworking may develop its full potential when it is implemented together with other flexible
workplace practices (flexitime, variable payment, etc.).
According to a report by Broughton (2007), 83% of workers who combine work outside the
company’s premises with work at home say that they can change the order of their work tasks.
This compares with 60% for those whose work is company-based. 51.1% of workers who
work away from the company’s premises (mobile teleworkers) stated that they do not have
fixed starting and finishing times. A study by Paridon and Hupke (2008) confirmed these
results, showing that 77% of a sample of mobile teleworkers investigated could often or
always organize work flexibly.
The figures illustrate the fact that the flexibility of non-company based workers is generally
higher than that of workers based on the company’s premises. A longitudinal study by
Konradt and Schmook (1999) confirms these results for home-based teleworkers, particularly
with regard to work time flexibility.
High levels of flexibility are evaluated positively by mobile teleworkers while low levels less
often receive positive evaluations (Paridon & Hupke, 2008). Flexibility may equal control and
increase the perception of autonomy (Hackman and Oldham, 1976), so higher levels of
flexibility may increase work motivation and job satisfaction (Gajendran and Harrison, 2007)
especially for knowledge workers who are capable of the amount of self-organization
required.
However, the increased need for self-organization that arises as a consequence of increased
autonomy may also be a source of increased stress, especially for those workers who are not
used to higher amounts of self-organization. Training should ensure that these workers are
well prepared for the working conditions which evolve from work using portable computing
and communication devices. To the author’s knowledge, the likely relationship between the
evaluation of flexibility and the ability to self-organize has not yet been studied.
Working time may be organized very flexibly and offer the potential for a better work-life
balance. Still, for a significant number of working people regularity in working time is more
important than flexibility when their private commitments are considered (European
Foundation for the Improvement of Living Conditions, 2007). Work time flexibility may,
therefore, appear to be an advantage of mobile work, but the employees themselves might not
55
regard it as such and prefer to retain regular working times. The higher flexibility of mobile
workers may also generally support the work-life balance, as private duties may be fulfilled
more flexibly. This may help to reduce feelings of stress. Conversely, boundaries between
work and leisure time may be blurred (Mann & Holdsworth, 2003) by working evenings or
weekends or in between leisure activities.
Goudsward and de Nanteuil (2000) state that flexible employment strategies in most cases
lead to a lack of control over working time. Martens (1999) shows that flexible work
schedules are positively correlated with health complaints and a general decrease in well-
being. The study does not concentrate only on mobile workers but also includes shift and
temporary workers so that it is not completely clear if these results can be extrapolated.
However, the relationships presented stress the importance of further investigation into the
results of flexible working times for mobile workers.
It is important to distinguish between forced and freely-chosen flexibility. While freely-
chosen flexibility has generally positive consequences for employee health, forced flexibility
may, according to the Risk Observatory on emerging psychosocial risks, result in a decrease
in psychological and physical well-being (European Agency for Safety and Health at Work,
2007). Mobile teleworkers may differ in that respect as well, in view of the particularly high
strain for on-demand mobile teleworkers.
Flexibility for employees using portable computing and communication devices also means
flexibility in the place of work. This includes the need to search for appropriate places to use
mobile technology, for example, flat surfaces for laptop-use or quiet places for telephone
calls. Searching for such places together with a feeling of insecurity as to whether technical
devices will work properly (for example, whether a mobile telephone connection is available
when urgently needed) may also induce increased levels of stress.
Changes in working time
In the general telework literature there is much data that supports the view that working away
from the company’s premises leads to an increase in working time, as figures from several
European countries show. Dutch teleworkers work 46 hours a week on average while non-
teleworkers only work 39. Many of these workers are not eligible for overtime pay. In France,
a study by the National Institute for Statistics and Economic Studies (Institut National de la
Statistique et des Études Économiques, INSEE) over the period 1999 to 2003 found that
teleworkers commonly reported working at night and on weekends. 20% stated that they
regularly worked between 10 p.m. and 6 a.m., compared with 10% of other employees
(Broughton, 2007). It may also be assumed that teleworkers do not regularly take breaks, as
there are no external prompts to remind them. A permanent lack in recovery time can lead to
increased risks of cardiovascular diseases (Martens et al., 1999).
According to Richter et al. (2007) the work of virtual teams consists of longer work cycles.
They state that often there are high expectations of virtual teams as they are supposed to be
experts. There may be pressure to work longer and provide the best possible results as a result
of this expectation.
Many mobile workers spend a considerable amount of time travelling, but the time they
actually spend on trains or other means of transport is not fully recognized as working time
(Weber-Bensch, 2005). Such company policy may cut significantly into leisure time.
56
Communication barriers
Electronic communication does not yet and probably will never fully match the richness of
face-to-face communication. Mulki et al. (2008), for example, report study results showing
that e-mail contact generally lacks the richness and social presence associated with face-to-
face dealings. Nor can increased communication via email fully replace face-to-face or
telephone communication.
When considering mobile phone use it is important to be aware of the social context
surrounding it. Often mobile phone users are not alone during calls or find themselves in
places where telephoning is not appropriate, such as in trains, restaurants or libraries (Hislop
& Axtell, 2007). This situational component may induce stress.
Andres (2002) proposes two criteria that can help to structure the advantages and
disadvantages of electronic communication: social presence and media richness. Media
richness refers to the existence of verbal cues76, facial expressions, gaze, gesture, posture,
physical proximity and back-channelling cues77 in communication. The lower this variability
is, the more uncertainty and ambiguity may arise and complicate communication processes.
Social presence refers to a feeling of being jointly involved in communication and feeling the
presence of communication partners. Past research has identified a continuum for social
presence ranging from e-mail, teleconferencing and computer-desktop conferencing to face-to
face communication.
A lack of social contact cues may lead to an increasingly negative communication tone that
includes assertive or hostile language and an increased sense of depersonalisation (Siegel et
al., 1986, Sproull & Kiesler, 1986). On the other hand, asynchronous work-groups (work
groups who work on tasks at different times and not together) experience greater productivity
(Ocker et al., 1996), especially when there are no time constraints and interdependence of
tasks is low. However, when time constraints and task interdependence increase, the
productivity of virtual teams falls below face-to-face groups. Thus the context of electronic
communication plays an important role in productivity.
With regard to the health and well-being of employees using portable computing and
communication devices, it can be stated that decreases in productivity and increases in effort
in order to maintain effective information exchange may lead to uncertainty and ambiguity,
which in turn may increase stress levels.
However, a study among human resources experts by Pérez et al. (2002) found that
communication problems were not perceived as important barriers to the implementation of
telework. This may indicate a difference in the perception of the consequences of telework
between the management and the workers themselves.
Pyöriä (2003) emphasises the fact that tacit or implicit knowledge is very difficult to acquire
in mobile telework. Tacit knowledge refers to a concept by Polanyi (1966). It is knowledge
which is not explicitly formulated and often not explicable but rather can be acquired by
observing experts working or by longer discussion. This might, for example, be the case when
a mobile worker seeks information from an expert located at the company’s premises which is
difficult to explain in words, e.g. information on certain computer routines or customers. This
kind of knowledge is very difficult to transfer by phone or other means of electronic
76 Accentuation or emphasis of important contents e.g. by repetition, speaking louder.
77 Expressions indicating that the listener is following the speaker, such as “Oh” or “Mm”.
57
communication. Hardill and Greene (2003) also conclude that face-to-face contact and inter-
organisational transfer of employees are still crucial elements in knowledge transfer.
Meyer et al. (2007) report problems of virtual collaboration such as a lack of opportunity to
contact supervisors to coordinate work immediately. Therefore, mobile workers should be
given a high degree of involvement in decisions and the task design should be considered in
more detail, especially regarding job demands and decision latitude.
In virtual teams conflicts are often detected too late. It is therefore recommended that efficient
communication and collaboration processes be implemented to prevent misunderstandings
and conflicts (Hertel et al., 2005). It is also important to structure the details of the work, for
example, tasks and timelines. These tasks should be led by supervisors.
Reduced information access and processing
Technically supported communication may cause certain indirect costs, such as a loss of time
or of important information. To structure costs that may arise due to electronic
communication, Schulte proposes the use of the Transaction Cost Model by Coase (1937, in
Schulte 1999). A transaction cost is a cost incurred in making an economic exchange.
Transaction costs mainly refer to information and communication costs that are necessary for
the coordination and reconciliation of economic relationships.
According to Schulte (1999) specific problems for information access and processing arise
from mobile telework. Costs may arise from the search for, and acquisition of, information
needed for a certain work process. In a mobile setting such processes become more
complicated as the employee sometimes cannot access company information. Increasing
opportunities for online data exchange may reduce these costs and also the mental strain
accompanying it over time. Yet it remains doubtful whether technical developments will be
able to fully eliminate these costs.
The location of a mobile employee at any given time is often unclear. This creates
uncertainty, especially in cases when expert knowledge or particular information is needed
quickly. The cost of initiating contact rises in such situations along with feelings of
uncertainty on the part of colleagues and supervisors on the company’s premises, as the onus
to make contact lies with the employee.
Possibilities for information input and processing are increasing with the development of new
technical devices and ways to transfer information online. However, a great deal of
information is still first recorded on paper and later transferred when employees work online.
These tasks increase quantitative work load and may lead to stress and fatigue.
58
Information overload
While a lack of important information may cause insecurity and stress, workers may also
suffer from an overload of information provided through their mobile portable devices. In the
study by Paridon and Hupke (2008) 58% of the workers indicated having feelings of often or
always being overloaded with information. About 50% of all participants said they often or
always receive useless information. It may be assumed that this useless information accounts
for a significant part of information overload. Companies therefore should try to specifically
reduce this source of overload and simultaneously give mobile ICT supported workers the
means to store and pass on important information in such a way that it can be administered
easily.
Blurring of boundaries between work and private life
The work-life balance is considered to be influenced positively by home-based telework,
particularly by high flexibility. Mobile ICT workers, in contrast, only rarely work at home, so
their work-life balance is more comparable with that of those working permanently on the
company’s premises. However, for many mobile employees there might be opportunities to at
least sometimes arrange work and private life according to their needs.
As in home-based telework problems may arise from the fact that portable computing and
communication devices are always accessible and so employees might also work during
evenings or weekends. However, this assumption could not generally be confirmed by data
from Hupke and Paridon (2008). 55% of mobile workers in this study said they never or only
rarely face blurring of boundaries between work and private life.
Hislop and Axtell (2007) point out in their study that huge differences exist between
employees with low and those with high levels of discretion. While low discretion workers
such as service engineers normally just work locally and need to be mobile within a radius of
a maximum of 20 kilometres, high discretion workers often have to travel long distances and
stay away from home for several nights. These characteristics lead to huge differences when
referring to the relative work-life balance of the employee groups. High discretion workers’
mobility generally had a negative impact on their work-life balance while for low discretion
workers the opposite was true.
In contrast to home-based workers, who face stress related to work-life balance when they
cannot reconcile work and family life, it is the regular absence from home that causes stress in
mobile high discretion workers in this area.
In a study by the Confederation of German Trade Unions (DGB) among 512 mobile and
1,194 company-based employees (Fuchs, 2008, Brandt & Brandl, 2008) mobile workers said
that the incompatibility of work and family is one of the most negative aspects of mobile
work.
Permanent availability
60% of mobile employees studied by Paridon and Hupke (2008) reported that they always or
at least often have to be available for colleagues and supervisors. Being available at all times
bears the risk of blurring the boundaries between work and private life and therefore
59
decreases the work-life balance. This applies especially to staff with supervisory
responsibilities and self-employed workers, as reported in the Fourth European Working
Conditions Survey (European Foundation for the Improvement of Working and Living
Conditions, 2007). It also increases disturbances in work flow.
In her study on mobile work Weber-Bensch (2005) found that permanent availability is
considered a negative strain factor by many employees and the feeling of permanent control
that may arise is related to reduced well-being.
Permanent availability also increases the quantity of communication processes, but at the
same time often lowers their quality and disturbs work-flow significantly. In the U.S. the new
field of “interruption science” is being developed. This deals with the consequences of
permanent availability and the interruptions caused by it. Studies in this field have found that
every interruption is connected with a rise in heart rate and skin conductivity which are
indicators of an increase in stress (Dörner, 2008).
1.1.2 Work content
Autonomy/Increased freedom of action
Autonomy is considered a key mediating factor in the model by Gajendran and Harrison
(2007) of the consequences of telecommuting (see figure 15). It significantly influences the
relationship between telecommuting and job satisfaction, turnover intent and role stress.
Telecommuting is positively correlated to these three variables when autonomy is given to the
mobile worker. A study by Martens (1999) on different flexible workplaces found that job
autonomy is negatively correlated with health complaints and a decrease in well-being,
indicating that autonomy generally has a positive influence on physical and mental health at
work.
However, autonomy may also involve risks. From the employer’s perspective a lack of
opportunities for supervision may lead to doubts as to whether employees are correctly
fulfilling work requirements or taking advantage of their increased freedom of action.
Additionally, the employee may sometimes be unsure about how to make decisions in certain
situations, compounded by the fact that an increase in autonomy increases the number of
decisions to be taken. Autonomy may thus lead to mobile employees suffering from higher
insecurity and mental strain.
Therefore, mobile work should be the subject of clear agreements between employer and
employee (Pyöriä, 2003). These agreements should be evaluated carefully by both parties as
autonomy is sometimes diminished when telecommuting employees have to sign very
detailed agreements specifying work in much more detail than is actually needed. On the
other hand, a certain degree of specification may generally be very helpful for the employees.
Work enrichment
Work enrichment in virtual work is discussed by Richter et al. (2007). For example, they state
that in virtual teams more organizational tasks and functions are transferred to the group
members, that the group organises work by itself to a greater extent, members face
significantly more learning demands and responsibilities, and that they are more involved in
60
planning processes. Higher levels of stress and lower levels of fatigue were observed in
virtual teams.
This corresponds to the findings of Montreuil and Lippel (2003), who also state that enriched
jobs create more stress. There are associations proposed between levels of stress and different
aspects of work which include organizational demands, increased responsibility, increased
amounts of cooperation as well as rising sequential completeness (work tasks including
different steps from planning to organization, execution and evaluation). Richter et al. (2007)
propose a curvilinear relationship between job enrichment and stress according to the Vitamin
Model (Warr, 1987) stating that too many or too complex tasks may have similar effects on
the development of negative mental strain, as does too little variety of tasks.
1.1.3 Social relations at work
Social support and isolation
According to European research, employees that work away from the company’s premises
may suffer from a lack of contact and social support from their colleagues and supervisors.
This may be even more difficult for lower skilled workers as they often do not take part in
regular team meetings (European Foundation for the Improvement of Working and Living
Conditions, 2007). Data from the European Working Conditions Survey (2005) shows that
when employees were asked whether their job involved exchange of communication and
working materials or results, 80.1% of people who work at home, including teleworkers,
stated that their job did not. Likewise, 74.2% of those combining working away from
company’s premises and work at home stated that their job did not involve these kinds of
exchange, and 64.8% of those working solely outside the company’s premises gave the same
answer. This compares with 52.4% of those working on the company’s premises.
With regard to isolation in mobile telework, the research shows mixed results (Mulki et al.,
2008). Mann and Holdsworth (2003) report from their study on home-based teleworkers that
67% of respondents said they at least sometimes suffer from loneliness at their workplace.
Mulki et al. (2008) report results from different studies, such as the feeling of being left out
due to a lack of personal contact, loss of camaraderie and little chance for informal meetings
and exchange (non-company-administered information exchange between employees). They
also mention deprivation of career support, mentoring and a feeling of having worse chances
of being involved in major projects. Two different types of isolation, company and colleague
isolation, are suggested. Company isolation refers to the employee’s feeling of not receiving
enough career-based support and mentoring from supervisors and the organization in general.
It is negatively correlated to organizational commitment. Low organizational commitment
may then lead to decreased quality of job performance.
However, telework does not necessarily lead to feelings of isolation and separation from
colleagues and supervisors. A study by Gajendran and Harrison (2007) found no negative
consequences of telecommuting on the relationship to colleagues and even positive
consequences for the relationship to supervisors. A recent online survey among mobile
teleworkers by Paridon and Hupke (2008) found that most of the participants have
possibilities for social interaction and receive social support from colleagues during their
work and evaluate these opportunities positively. As many mobile teleworkers have regular
face-to-face contact with customers when away from the company’s premises it may be
61
assumed that for this group of employees, isolation is less of a problem than for home-based
teleworkers.
To prevent feelings of isolation regular meetings may be necessary. Teleworkers should be
encouraged to take part in important company events and there might be fixed times when the
employee is required to work in the office, for example, one day per week. Some companies
also use regular virtual team meetings or virtual team work to give teleworking employees the
feeling of being integrated (European Foundation for the Improvement of Working and
Living Conditions, 2007).
Possibilities of control: supervision/leadership
The task of managing employees with portable computing and communication devices is very
different from managing office-based workers. As the possibility of direct supervision is
generally either small or non-existent when only little time is spent on the company’s
premises, other ways to ensure support, mentoring and supervision must be utilised.
One factor being studied in this context is the importance of trust between employer and
employee. Mulki et al. (2008) report studies which found that trust increases an employee’s
ability to cope with organizational stressors, fosters organizational commitment and enhances
job satisfaction. In virtual working conditions trust is especially important as supervisors
generally do not have direct control over their teleworking employees. Trust can be increased
by creating more opportunities for communication and informal networking, for example,
through regular meetings or the implementation of regular office work days.
Telecommuting can even lead to feelings of an improved employer-employee relationship as
shown in a study by Gajendran and Harrison (2007). Trust might play a very important role
when these relationships develop in such positive directions.
Supervisors also have to be aware that employees can face problems when operating as
mobile teleworkers. For example, it has been found that salespeople in remote offices needed
their supervisor’s help to impose structure on their daily activities (Mulki, 2008). Employees
working in a mobile mode for significant amounts of time should, therefore, be well prepared
for what to expect and their work should be discussed with their supervisor regularly. This, of
course, largely depends on the position and the abilities of the mobile worker.
There is consensus that telework in general can only be effectively realized with leadership
that makes use of management by results or objectives (Illegems et al., 2001, Hörmann,
2000). In mobile work, goals such as time limits may help workers to structure their work,
which might otherwise be too long or too much (Richter et al., 2007). The goals agreed on
make it easier for the employer or supervisor and the employee to know each others’
expectations and capabilities, especially when large parts of working-time take place outside
of the company’s premises. Thus goal setting also serves as a control measure.
Figure 16 shows results from a survey conducted by Clear and Dickson (2005) explaining
how work is controlled in a sample of 300 small and medium-sized enterprises in five
European countries. They suggest that companies practising direct supervision would first
need to introduce other methods of control before introducing telework.
62
Figure 16: Different forms of control in small and medium-sized enterprises
How is work controlled
45
30
t
er cenp
15
0
Direct
Automated Work done to
Individual
Team Goals Other means
Supervision recording of
specif ied
Goals
performance
deadlines
Source: Clear & Dickson, 2005.
However, technical opportunities for direct control in telework also exist, such as a permanent
demand for data transmission, time sheets or even the use of Global Positioning System
(GPS) to trace employees’ movements (Broughton, 2008). Working times and the contents of
technical devices could also be recorded or telephone calls might be traced. However, these
activities decrease the employee’s freedom and may destroy feelings of trust for the mobile
teleworker. A lack of intrinsic motivation will most likely develop from such measures, so
careful consideration must be given to the necessity of such measures and whether they are
more important than the intrinsic motivation arising from greater freedom of action (Schulte,
1999).
Supervisors also have to make sure that the work of their teleworking employees is evaluated
and that they receive feed-back and reward in the same manner as office-based workers.
These employees should have the feeling that they are considered for important assignments
and that their achievements are reported to upper management lest they face the risk of a
gratification crisis as proposed by the Effort-Reward-Imbalance Model developed by Siegrist
(1996). According to the model, employees face an increased risk of physical or mental ill-
health when significant effort at work is not rewarded adequately. It is also important to
involve mobile teleworkers in company decisions. Generally mobile teleworkers evaluate
having a voice in company matters as positive while those who are not involved in company
decisions evaluate this negatively (Paridon & Hupke, 2008).
63
1.1.4 Operational and societal conditions
Work place insecurity
In a study by the Confederation of German Trade Unions (DGB) (Fuchs, 2008, Brandt &
Brandl, 2008), mobile workers reported higher feelings of job insecurity. The reasons for this
higher insecurity have not yet been clearly identified but high stress levels may lead to a
perception of not being able to carry on under the prevailing working conditions until
retirement. Also a lack of access to informal information as previously described might give
employees the feeling that their work is not being sufficiently appreciated.
1.1.5 Personal influences
Employee characteristics
Mobile telework places special demands on the employee. As mobile teleworkers mostly have
to structure their work days and arrange appointments on their own, an ability to self-organize
is essential (figure 17).
Figure 17: Answers from mobile ICT users
The demand to organise my work by myself is high
100
80
Per cent
54.3
60
38.4
40
20
2.3
5.0
0
Never
Sometimes
Often
Always
Source: Paridon & Hupke, 2008.
Employees applying for a mobile position should, therefore, be carefully selected. They
should also be thoroughly informed regarding what to expect and questioned as to whether the
autonomous, self-organized working style necessary for such positions is compatible with
their way of working (Hörmann, 2000).
The employees should also be introduced to the psychosocial risk factors arising from mobile
work and be enabled to handle specific stressors. Relevant training for the employee as well
as for the employer is therefore important when mobile work using portable computing and
communication devices is introduced in a company.
Employees must also be able to cope with longer periods of isolated working, an ability which
largely depends on the personality of an employee. This aspect should be discussed
thoroughly as an inappropriate deployment might even result in depression.
64
1.2 Risks of illness and accidents deriving from psychosocial stressors
The stressors described in the previous section generally have the potential to cause not only
stress but also other forms of negative psychosocial strain, such as fatigue or mental
saturation. When chronic, over months or years, these strain factors bear the risk of causing
illness. The illnesses that are primarily discussed in relation to psychosocial stress are
coronary disease (Öhlin et al, 2004), back pain, sleep disturbances and impairment of the
immune system (Jones & Bright, 2001). These observations are supported by theoretical
models such as the above-mentioned Effort-Reward-Imbalance Model developed by Siegrist
(1996) and the Vitamin Model developed by Warr (1987). The latter model proposes nine
psychosocial stressors, some of which may have a negative impact on health in excessive
doses, as in the case of vitamins A and D. Examples of such negative impacts are: control
opportunities, variety of work tasks or interpersonal contact. Other psychosocial stressors may
not be harmful to health even when present in very high doses and thus comparable with
vitamins C and E. Examples of such factors are physical safety and social status.
Accidents caused by psychological stressors are mainly the subject of cognitive ergonomics
and will be discussed in the next chapter. Of course high levels of psychosocial stress may
lead to a lack of attention and therefore increase the risk of an accident. Up to now there seem
to be no data regarding the frequency of illnesses and accidents specifically among mobile
workers.
1.3 Psychosocial implications for the proposed future development in work using
portable computing and communication devices
From a psychosocial perspective, a major concern for the future development of portable
computing and communication devices is its spread, which forces more and more employees
to work at least partially in a mobile mode and which is connected with the above mentioned
risk factors. When companies increase the number of mobile staff they will have to recruit
them from a pool less obviously suited to the task and must therefore take greater care when
choosing and preparing these employees for this type of work. Companies also must
reconsider their management and communication strategies in general and adjust them for
mobile work.
New technical developments may bring opportunities as well as risks. Virtual communication
techniques which offer ways to communicate which are very similar to real face-to-face
communication may be applied to facilitate information exchange. Moreover, having been
accustomed to it from an early age, the younger generation may view technical means of
communication more positively and therefore experience less difficulty and strain when
communicating virtually in their future jobs. On the other hand, the workers and their work
may be monitored by technical equipment, which may be assessed negatively. New
technology can also overstrain its operators when it is too complicated. On the other hand,
devices which are designed ergonomically will facilitate work.
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1.4 Demographic effects
The psychosocial consequences of work with portable computing and communication devices
and the ageing workforce
As mentioned in the introduction to this chapter, there is only a very small amount of
scientific research into the psychosocial effects of mobile telework. The specific
consequences for older mobile teleworkers have been investigated even less. The advantages
and disadvantages of mobile ICT for older workers are discussed by Charness (2006). These
include decreases in specific cognitive functioning such as speed of perception and short-term
memory. As these factors refer to aspects of usability they will be covered in the next chapter.
However, no explicit reference is made to specific psychosocial outcomes for mobile telework
so only general experiences can be reported. The Risk Observatory of the European Agency
for Safety and Health at Work (2007) states that in older workers several decreases in ability
are countered by certain increases. Some of these results can be transferred to mobile
telework. For instance, older people are more independent in their decision making and have
more experience in their work, which increases their ability to work autonomously. This may
even result in lower stress levels due to task insecurity than in younger workers. It is also
reported that older people have a greater sense of responsibility and duty, which may help to
establish trust and an efficient exchange of information between older mobile teleworkers and
their supervisors. Older people can generally also assess their abilities and limitations more
realistically. Thus in mobile telework they might be better able to structure their working days
according to their needs and abilities and not overstrain themselves.
Older mobile teleworkers reported significantly less support from colleagues than did younger
mobile teleworkers (Paridon & Hupke, 2008). It can be assumed that these older workers are
more reluctant to ask others for help, which would generally be a disadvantage for mobile
work.
From a psychosocial perspective there is no reason to believe that older workers are generally
less suited to mobile telework.
The psychosocial consequences of work with portable computing and communication devices
and the increasing proportion of women in the workforce
From a psychosocial perspective women may experience higher stress in mobile telework
when they are also the primary care giver in a family. This is still very common even in
Western European and American families where fathers generally do not engage as much in
child care and external child care is still rare and expensive. If women do mobile work they
may suffer from mental stress that develops from organizing child care during their absence
and worrying about their children’s well-being. Family duties are probably one of the main
reasons why women are underrepresented in mobile telework involving staying away from
home overnight. Another reason is the fact that the majority of mobile teleworkers who stay
away overnight are managers or professionals (Garrett, Danziger, 2007), still categories where
women are underrepresented.
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1.5 Expert interviews
The expert interviews are intended to supplement the results from the review of literature with
practical findings from the work of experts on projects concerning work with portable
computing and communication devices. The following experts answered questions in a
standardised interview.
Cornelia Brandt works for Ver.di, the German trade union for the service sector. She started
to investigate the consequences of telework in the nineties and then shifted her focus to
mobile work. She has worked in several projects on the topic (OnFormA, PaPsD, Index “Gute
Arbeit”).
Pekka Huuhtanen is a research professor and team leader at the Finnish Institute of
Occupational Health: Work Organizations Changes and Future Work. Since 1995, he has
been the coordinator of a European project on health and safety in telework covering 15 EU
Member States. Two articles by him on telework and eWork have been published on the
website of the European Agency for Safety and Health at Work.
Dagmar Siebecke is a scientific project leader at the Faculty of Business and Social Sciences
at the University of Dortmund (Germany). She took part in a project co-financed by the
European Union and the German Ministry for Education and Science. The project is called
PRAGDIS and aims at collecting scientific knowledge on occupational safety and the
prevention of disease in discontinuous career histories. One form of work being investigated
in the project is mobile work.
Piet van Lingen and Friso van der Meulen work at TNO Hoofddorp, in the Netherlands. They
have worked on mobile data terminals in police cars and the project “Distance Working”, a
four year research program that started in 2003.
Additional results
Many risks and resources named by the experts confirmed the results from the literature and
will not be quoted again. Particular risks such as social isolation, lack of supervision and
leadership, increased work load and intensity and work/family conflict were named. The
following aspects mentioned by the experts have not been considered in the literature
analysis.
When employees do mobile work they may have, and take, fewer opportunities to delegate
tasks to specialized colleagues and thus be forced to work more than office-based colleagues
to fulfil such tasks. Examples of this are correspondence with clients, processing of data or the
search for particular information requested by a customer.
If the level of mobile work in jobs increases in the future there is the risk that work-family
conflicts will increase. Parents, especially, will have great difficulty taking care of their
children when both mother and father have jobs that require mobility, especially when this
includes staying away overnight. The topic has not yet been a subject of intense discussion.
The question is whether employers should be encouraged to assist employees to continue
working by providing the opportunity for in-company child care. Working times could be
arranged according to the needs of employees with children. It could be argued that a solution
is best left to the employees themselves but apart from increased stress levels and financial
67
demands for child care this might lead to a lack of equality. If one parent is forced to quit the
job, it is highly likely to be the woman in accordance with current gender roles. Therefore,
official regulations or at least recommendations might be a solution.
Mobile work using portable computing and communication devices not only bears the risk of
longer working hours but may even lead to workaholism.
It has also been observed that due to lack of time, supervisors discuss topics with their mobile
employees on the phone or per e-mail which would be better discussed in a face-to-face
situation. Typical topics of this nature are employment contracts and other personnel matters.
It was also suggested that mobile workers should receive more support from transport
companies when they work while travelling. For example, companies could provide more
lounges with higher seating capacities in stations and airports.
It is expected that the concepts of “just-in-time” production will be transferred to the service
sector because of pressure to meet customers’ needs and be available for customers at short
notice. This will increase the demand for faster work and put higher levels of strain on mobile
employees.
1.6 Conclusions
Generally, there has been little scientific research on work using portable computing and
communication devices. However, by taking knowledge and experience from related forms of
work it is possible to identify the main psychosocial risk factors and resources. The main
sources of strain in this kind of work are factors arising from work organization such as
flexibility, working time, communication barriers and the work-life balance. In accordance
with this result, measures to improve working conditions and lower psychosocial risk should
concentrate particularly on this field, without losing sight of other factors which may also be
important.
The employer and the organization appear to have significant influence on the working
conditions of their mobile employees even if they only rarely supervise them directly. In
general, the effect of psychological factors often depends on their degree. Where factors may
have either a positive or a negative effect, working conditions should be designed to ensure
positive consequences.
The diversity of mobile work is tremendous and this should be considered when
psychological factors are investigated. It may, for example, make a considerable difference
whether someone works as an employee or is self-employed.
The following recommendations for the prevention of risks in work using portable computing
and communication devices can be derived from the study:
· It should be ensured that, when starting to be mobile for a significant part of their work,
employees are able to organize themselves and their workload.
· Employees should be introduced to the main psychological risks of mobile work and be
trained to detect, and if possible handle, psychosocial stressors.
68
· Employees should have regular opportunities for face-to-face contact with their colleagues
and supervisors to exchange information.
· Management by objectives has proven to be a very helpful approach to the supervision of
mobile workers.
· Employees should have the possibility to take breaks from permanent availability.
· Employees should learn about the risks of being permanently available and learn to take
breaks where possible.
· Employees should be thoroughly familiarised with their technical devices and have
constant access to technical support.
· Employees should receive regular feed-back on their achievements.
· A trusting relationship should be established between supervisor and employee before
mobile work is begun.
· The employee should always have the possibility to delegate tasks to colleagues at the
company’s premises to prevent overload.
· The problem of child care should not be seen as a solely private matter. Both companies
and politicians should discuss possible support.
69
2. Ergonomic risk factors
Summary
This chapter deals with task 2b of the study (assessment of the OSH risks – ergonomic
risk factors) and analyses the literature on the following subjects:
· Manual handling issues due to the compromise that must be accepted in terms of usability
when designing portable devices and bearing in mind that they will sometimes be used in
cold environments or situations that result in poor posture;
· Repetitive movements, especially involving pinch-grip, which may lead to repetitive
strain injury;
· Poor visual interface due to small display screens and controls, together with problems
arising from reflective glare or an insufficient level of ambient light;
· Excessive noise levels due to high volume settings to compensate for background noise;
· Static and/or poor posture due to the use of the devices in an unsuitable environment;
· Cognitive load resulting in a risk of accident – e.g. when driving or as a pedestrian
crossing the road.
The analysis also includes an explanation of how the literature search was conducted.
On the basis of the data found, no thorough assessment of the above mentioned risk factors
can be provided. It is possible only to make assumptions regarding their impact and to
identify and highlight fields of interest for further research. Wherever information is
available, the contexts of an ageing workforce and greater participation of women is
considered. In addition, as far as the data analysis allows the review addresses the question of
how the nature and extent of these risks will change with possible developments in the
technology and its use.
Introduction
After a brief description of the variety of types of portable systems presently in use, this
chapter gives an overview of current research into the hazards presented by these systems and
the risks of ill health and accidents for workers. To this end, an analysis of publications was
conducted, involving various types of database. For the web search a set of search engines
were used (see table 9). In addition, the in-house database ZIGUV (Zentrales
Informationssystem der Gesetzlichen Unfallversicherung) of the DGUV (German Statutory
Accident Insurance) and the FIZ-Technik databases TEMA and INSP were searched.
Table 9: Search engines used for the web search
http://www.google.de
Yahoo
http://www.yahoo.com
ScienceDirect
http://www.sciencedirect.com
Ergoweb
http://www.ergoweb.com/news/detail.cfm?id=1672
Scirus
http://www.scirus.com/srsapp/advanced/index.jsp?q1=
NetbibWiki
http://wiki.netbib.de/coma/AufsatzRecherche
Workrite Ergonomics
http://www.workriteergo.com/ergonomics/articles.asp
Gigablast
http://www.gigablast.com/
70
ASK
http://de.ask.com/#subject:ask|pg:1
Directory of open access http://www.doaj.org/
journals
Karlsruhe Virtual Catalogue
http://www.ubka.uni-karlsruhe.de/kvk.html
Google Scholar
http://scholar.google.de/
Table 10 lists the search terms, which were used in different combinations and variations.
Table 10: Keywords used for the web search
Usability of mobile devices
Mobile/portable devices
Cognitive ergonomics
Portable IT/Information technology
Communication device
Laptop, handheld, mobile phone, PDA,
Occupational health and safety
Safety at work
Small display
Ergonomic risks of handheld devices
Risk of handheld devices
Usability mobile devices
Usability mobile communication solutions
Ergonomic risks handling mobile IT devices
Mobile devices problems in application
Handling
Risk, health risk
Multitasking
Deviation, defection, avocation, distraction, diversion
This procedure led to a collection of 61 scientific and non-scientific articles. Overall, there are
as yet few reports on specific risk factors such as noise, use in cold environments, repetitive
movements or low levels of ambient light with a special focus on PSs. Consequently, there is
still a great deal of research to be done on this issue. However, research findings for fixed or
stationary workplaces can, for the most part, be applied to PSs as well. This chapter therefore
brings together:
1) Current research findings with a specific focus on PSs;
2) Research findings based on stationary and instant workplaces but which allow predictions
to be made regarding the impact of working with PSs.
As the research findings are broadly applicable to the whole field of mobile work, a rather
general approach is taken here. The literature is analysed with respect to the risk factors
addressed. Then, a description of the risk factors and an assessment in the context of mobile
work is attempted. Wherever applicable, the review also highlights the influence of age and
gender on these risks, as well as the changes likely to take place as the technology and its use
are developed and improved.
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2.1 The effects of biomechanical workload
While operating a PS on the move, biomechanical load may arise from manual handling,
repetitive movements or static and/or poor posture.
As indicated in an earlier chapter “Overview of the technology and its use”, there are various
portable systems (PSs) with different specifications in use. The use of the PS in the field
depends mainly on the task to be performed with it. These tasks are often determined by
professions or professional categories. This must be taken into account when attempting to
identify and assess possible health problems due to the ergonomic risk factors of PS use.
Firstly, the use of laptops by white-collar workers is considered. Where they are utilised by
workers performing office, administrative, sales or managerial tasks, the ergonomic risk
factors seem to be similar to those attached to stationary VDU workstations. While in most
cases the tasks are the same at stationary and instant workplaces, the ergonomic risk factors
are likely to be aggravated in instant workplaces due to the constant use of laptops in a
sometimes unsuitable environment and without time limits controlled by workflow
procedures. The postures adopted are presumed to be worse than at a stationary workplace
because a desk top of adequate height may be missing, no suitable seating may be available
and, due to the physical design of a laptop, the keyboard cannot be freely positioned. Thus,
the impact of repetitive movements may be higher and may further increase due to overtime
work and the absence of breaks. Vickery (2000), in fact, found that the use of laptops leads to
an increasing number of complaints of musculoskeletal problems. The musculoskeletal
problems of 508 respondents from a random sample of 626 staff, 40 % of whom use laptops
during their office-based, manufacturing or home-based occupations, were surveyed (Mc
Atamney, 2001): “83% of the sales force, who used laptops, reported one or more
musculoskeletal disorders and 14 % of those who used a laptop for more than one hour a day
reported significantly higher levels of elbow pain (p<0.05). Additionally, 72 % of employees
who used the laptop for four hours or more a day reported a significant increase in back pain
(p<0.05) compared to those who used it less often. There was a higher level of lower back
pain in the laptop users (59 %) compared to the rest of the sample (49 %), which included
industrial staff who undertook manual handling operations.”
In order to tackle problems like these, Mc Atamney (2001) and other authors (i.e. Dreier &
Feder (2001), van Harten (2007), Heegner (2007)) tried, as far as possible, to apply the
ergonomic recommendations of Council Directive 90/270/EEC of 29 May 1990 to the use of
laptops, and include them in the minimum health and safety requirements for work with
display screen equipment (fifth individual Directive within the meaning of Article 16 (1) of
Directive 89/391/EEC) and the German Health and Safety Regulations for Working with
VDU Equipment (”Bildschirmarbeitsverordnung”). To enable employees to follow ergonomic
rules when arranging their PS and all the peripheral equipment as closely as possible at any
place, it is proposed to teach ergonomics in specific situations; e.g. laptop use in the
classroom, whilst travelling etc. Decisions on additional equipment to help overcome difficult
conditions should be made on a case by case basis. This means, for example, that if the space
available on a work surface is very limited, it may be advisable to use a trackball instead of a
mouse (Keller Chandra et al. (2008)). However, despite the input devices built into laptops,
the use of a mouse as a pointing and input device whenever possible is recommended on the
basis of both best performance test results and subjective usability ratings (Baldus & Patterson
(2008), Sutter et al. (2008)).
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Aside from musculoskeletal load caused by poor posture, another health risk attached to
laptops has been identified. The term “laptop” suggests that notebook computers are designed
to be positioned on the lap. In his study, Shenykin (2004) proves that such a mode of
operation causes a significant rise in scrotal temperature as a result of heat exposure and
posture-related effects, i.e. closing the thighs to comfortably balance the notebook computer
on the lap. Since scrotal hyperthermia has been identified as a risk factor for male infertility,
the use of notebook computers positioned on the lap should be avoided. Further studies of
such thermal effects on male reproductive health are warranted because long-term exposure to
laptop-related repetitive transient scrotal hyperthermia is a modern lifestyle feature.
Therefore, the possible negative impact upon spermatogenesis, specifically in teenage boys
and young men, ought to be assessed.
Secondly, it is necessary to examine the attitude of workers who perform manufacturing,
maintenance or technical support tasks with laptops and other PSs. Even though ICT devices,
in particular personal computers, have become part of nearly everybody’s everyday life, some
people remain relatively unfamiliar with these technologies. Workers performing office or
administrative tasks are commonly used to, and trained in, computer work as part of their
jobs, but workers performing manufacturing or technical support tasks often have to learn
computer skills before they can benefit from PSs in their working environment. They may feel
the mental workload and time pressure growing while they try to apply newly gained
knowledge to the performance of habitual tasks. At the same time, computer novices will no
doubt find it more complicated to lay out an “ergonomic instant VDU workstation” on their
own. These circumstances may explain certain reservations towards laptop and other PSs use
on the part of this group of workers (Bowden et al. (2003)). It is well known that all these
factors may act together to increase the biomechanical load on the musculoskeletal system.
Current research focuses not only on technical problems, like small screen size, short battery
life or limited memory (Pettit & Kukulska-Hulme, 2007), or hardware limitations, like slow
and unreliable network connections, limited data transfer or slower CPUs (Johansson, 2006),
but also simultaneously addresses ergonomic issues.
According to Jøssund (2006), typing on a handheld device is extremely difficult unless a
keyboard is attached. She also states that handwriting recognition software requires users to
be trained in specific writing styles, such as block letters, etc. Mekelburg (2005) focuses on
adaptable keyboards for fast data entry on mobile devices. He compares current typing
systems like the phone pad system, mini- QWERTY and FASTAP, touchscreen with stylus
and the thin or half QWERTY. The author makes several demands on the input devices. The
keyboard should:
· allow fingers to be placed in a natural position;
· provide buttons which are easy and comfortable to press;
· allow for a large range of natural movements;
· improve mobile text entry;
· be easy to store;
· be usable with either hand;
· be usable on its own, i.e. without additional devices;
· be able to be interfaced to any device;
· be robust/rugged enough to endure rough handling;
· be weather resistant.
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Schülke (2003) surveys the use of PSs in an industrial context. He also requires PSs to allow
fingers to be placed in a natural position, to provide emergency stop switches and to possess
switches which are easy and comfortable to press and to be usable with either hand. Skourup
(2001), too, shows the relevance of well designed mobile workplaces in automation and
industrial applications. She notices that the choice and design of mobile workplaces is not
always adapted to the needs of the mobile worker. Although the interface and software are to
assist mobile workers in fulfilling their tasks, they are rarely involved in the process of
selecting and designing the technical equipment. Therefore, Skourup recommends that PSs in
industrial settings should:
· allow hands-free operation;
· fulfil the requirements of data and information access;
· provide specific solutions for communication;
· be adequate for the prevailing environmental conditions.
Bowden et al. (2003) show the application of PSs on construction sites. As the construction
site is a tough environment with sunlight, rain, mud and heavy handling, PSs have to meet
high demands. The authors make clear that the user’s preference or the suitability of a certain
PS depends on the specific tasks to be performed. Participants preferred PDAs (Personal
Digital Assistants) for inspection test sheets. Robust PDAs and PDA phones were preferred
for statement and diary tasks and PDA phones for drawing tasks. Remarkably, 88% of the
participants confirmed that they were happy to use one of these devices for their work, which
shows the benefits of PSs in the working environment.
In conclusion, researchers commonly consider the ability to hold a device easily in one hand
as an advantage. This is irrespective of the specific application or conditions of use (see e. g.
Wilson & Landoni, 2003; Mekelburg, 2005; Schülke, 2003 or Skourup, 2001). Since both
hands are required for keyboard input and placement, Zhu et al. (2002) consider pen-based
interfaces on PSs as more suitable for fieldwork environments as the user typically stands
whilst operating other devices.
According to Schedlbauer and Heines (2007), there have been few studies on the effects on
interaction with mobile computing devices and task performance when the user is moving,
e.g. walking slowly. They identify target selection, swiping, scrolling and drag/drop as typical
actions when dealing with these PSs. They call for statistical data to guide designers of
desktop-oriented devices in a mobile work context. The aspects of task interference are
examined later in this chapter in the section on effects of cognitive load and multiple task
situations.
When considering static and poor posture resulting from using a PS in an unsuitable
environment or from working in an improperly installed instant workplace, research findings
always recommend the reduction of weight and the provision of special installation and
transportation aids (s. von Harten, 2007). Mc Atamney (2001) clearly states that the human
body is not designed to be positioned in front of a monitor for most of the working day. In her
case study of a 24-year-old female mobile worker she discovered that the participant’s neck,
shoulder, back and hand postures were contributing to overloading the musculoskeletal
system. After three months she noticed pain in the right palm and hand, and after five months
the symptoms had been diagnosed as carpal tunnel syndrome.
Since the mobile phone is a crucial device for most mobile workers, the consequences of its
use, i.e. resulting ergonomic risk factors, will be mentioned here as well. Chany et al. (2007)
74
investigated the effect of mobile phone design on upper extremity discomfort and muscle
fatigue. Their findings show that participants with more abduction strength, wider palms, and
broader thumbs had increased mean discomfort in the neck and shoulder when dealing with
small clamshell phones. Small clamshell phones generally increased hand discomfort and
thenar muscle fatigue during use, while the grip style contributed to the development of
discomfort and muscle fatigue by changing muscle length.
Baber (2001) focuses on weight and locations for displays when studying portable computers
with respect to human factors. He investigated PSs applied in vehicle inspection, aircraft or
warehouse work in an exemplary manner. Basically, the human body can carry loads on the
head, the shoulders or the back. Apparently, on-body equipment can have an effect on posture
and mobility, and there are potential physical effects of carrying such loads. Baber suggests
that the total equipment weight should not exceed 30 % of the total body weight of the user
and proposes the forearm as an alternative location for the display of a PS. The forearm is
considered as an appropriate place to mount devices, and the torso a poor one to position
pointing devices. Although there is a lack of statistical data and experimental studies,
researchers and consultancies such as “ergonomicofficeTM” recommend short breaks because
these are deemed beneficial for eyes, neck, shoulders, arms, hands and fingers.
2.2 Effects of the visual interface design
Several authors (e.g. Kiper (2007), Dreier & Feder (2001), von Harten (2007) and Heegner
(2007)) apply the German Health and Safety Regulations for Working with VDU Equipment
(”Bildschirmarbeitsverordnung”) to mobile working contexts, especially for the use of
notebooks. In conclusion, and for this working context, their recommendations are similar:
high resolution, sufficient font and icon sizes and flicker-free displays. Experimental studies,
e.g. by Alexander et al. (2007), highlight the necessity of adequate icon and font size for data
entry tasks using PSs.
According to Laur (2002), contrast is the crucial criterion for the legibility of a display. And
because anisotropic liquid or liquid crystals in TFT displays are temperature sensitive, he pays
special attention to the mobile working context. The ideal temperature for the functioning of
the anisotropic liquid is 25°C. Deviation may lead to malfunction. He therefore recommends
special design features in PS displays, such as back lighting. Wilson & Landoni (2003) agree
with Laur and propose display technology with high resolution, high contrast, minimal glare
and backlighting for mobile applications. Wu et al. (2007) compare a PDA (3.5 inch diagonal
TFT-LCD screen), an e-book reader (6.5 inch diagonal SSCT-LCD screen) and a Notebook
computer (14.1 inch diagonal TFT-LCD screen) for prolonged reading tasks. In the first
instance, users still prefer printed books to e-books. Thus, the authors assert that the latter
need to be well designed if they are to become widely accepted and used effectively. Their
results show that the type of display has a statistically significant effect on reading
performance, visual fatigue and user satisfaction. The PDA led to obvious visual fatigue after
the subjects had been reading for 100 minutes. Only when portability was considered did the
PDA have a significantly better rating than other PSs. All in all, the small size of screen was
identified as a key limitation to applying a PDA to prolonged reading tasks.
Finally, display size is also interrelated with the user’s ability to process information.
According to Zhu et al. (2002), screen size limitation causes input limitation to the user and,
conversely, output limitation of the PSs.
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2.3 Effects of excessive noise and vibration levels
There is hardly any research available on excessive noise levels or background noise in
working contexts with a special focus on PSs. Here, general statutory regulations or standards
could be consulted and applied.
However, Sundström & Khan (2008) noted the effect of constant lateral vibration on train
passengers’ ability to read and write. Their laboratory study involving 48 subjects reveals a
significant relationship between the tasks, vibration level and postural conditions. The
subjects reported greater difficulty while reading and writing on the table than while leaning
back. This may be of relevance for mobile workers in industrial contexts as well, because
critical vibration levels may be present here, due to machinery in the working environment.
2.4 Effects of cognitive load and multiple task situations
Richter et al. (2006 in J. H. Andriessen & M. Vartianen) provide an overview of the study of
modern mental workload and describe research into mental strain in the context of mobile
virtual work (for definitions see chapter II). With reference to “ISO 10075:1991 Ergonomic
principles related to mental work-load – General terms and definitions”, mental workload at
work and its consequences, such as mental fatigue or reduced vigilance, are examined.
Figure 18: Mental workload, mental strain, and consequences of mental strain
according to ISO EN 10 075
MENTAL WORKLOAD
External factors impinging upon the human being
MENTAL STRAIN
Immediate effects of mental workload within an individual
depending on their habitual and current preconditions
Consequences of mental strain
SHORT-TERM CONSEQUENCES
LONG-TERM CONSEQUENCES
Emerging during a workday: both positive (e.g.
Emerging over a longer period of time: both positive
flow, motivation) and negative consequences (e.g.
(e.g. increasing of skills) and negative (e.g. work
fatigue, monotony, satiation)
and stress-related diseases, unlearning of
knowledge and skills) consequences
Source: Paridon & Hupke, 2008.
When dealing with mental workload, the authors (chapter III on “Psychosocial Resources and
Risk Factors of the Increasing Use of Portable Computing and Communication Devices”)
consider, amongst other things, an intensive interaction with ICT tools compared to non-
virtual working situations. For this they assume higher levels of cognitive demands on mobile
workers.
Basically, the use of PSs during work in a mobile context can be considered from the
perspective of the so-called dual-task paradigm, in which users have to perform two tasks
simultaneously. Evidently, human processing resources are limited and shared and can be
76
subdivided into several classes. Different tasks may compete for the same information
processing resources in the brain. This commonly leads to task interference and performance
loss in either one of the tasks.
There is a variety of empirical research into dual-task trade-offs while driving. This gives an
initial insight into working conditions with PSs and provides transferable results concerning
cognitive distraction, inattention, increased reaction times and similar effects. The majority of
mobile phone-related car accidents in Japan and the United States occur during dialling,
receiving calls or during conversation (Lamble et al., 1999).
According to Lamble et al. (1999) and other general research findings, manipulating, looking
at and talking into a mobile phone can all increase the risk of a car crash. Findings by Brumby
et al. (2007) support this conclusion. Here, engaging in a secondary task, such as dialling on a
mobile phone while driving a car, has also been found to have a negative effect on driver
performance.
Chittaro & De Marco (2004) distinguish between different types of distraction. The general
withdrawal of attention means taking the eyes off the road or the critical target. This is due to
eyelid closure or glances away from the critical target. Selective withdrawal of attention
means “mind-off-the-road” due to daydreaming, for example. Finally, the biomechanical
interference indicates the reduction of the user’s ability to execute manoeuvres due to body
posture shifts or similar, e.g. when reaching for a mobile telephone or leaning over to see or
manipulate a device while driving. The latter type of distraction may be eliminated with the
help of technical solutions such as hands-free PSs, i.e. hands-free mobile phones in driving
situations. This cannot, however, reduce possible cognitive distractions which occur while
handling the PSs.
The scheduling of multiple tasks causes interference and often one task is temporarily
neglected in favour of another. For example, attention is taken from the primary task (driving)
while operating an in-vehicle navigation system, a PDA, or dialling on a mobile phone. A
potential cause is that a particular task, for instance the use of a particular PS is too difficult
and the mental workload increases to such an extent that the situation becomes unsafe, and
accidents can occur. Chen et al. (2008) examined the hypothetical benefits of in-built vehicle
input/output and display systems for so-called “nomadic” devices. Their study shows that the
interface developed reduces mental workload compared to using the “nomadic” devices
without such interface and results in less neglect of the driving task.
Alexander et al. (2007) also state that, when dealing with PSs and data entry in a mobile
context the task of moving is the primary task, which has to be performed in a safe manner.
This influences performance in the secondary task. People may potentially vary the extent to
which two tasks are interleaved. There is a strategic variability in multitasking behaviour,
because attention may be turned to a certain task less often while performing another task.
However, an increase in the total time to complete the task may be expected because of
frequent task interleaving.
Schedlbauer & Heines (2007) investigated interactions with PSs while walking. They
demonstrated interaction effects of walking and task performance when using a PS
corresponding to the effects of dual or multiple tasking described above. They cite research
findings that show that the difficulty of walking through an obstacle course influenced the
performance of the user with the PS. The main result was that participants noticeably slowed
down their walking speed when selecting targets on the PS display. Again, the results make
77
evident that there is a definite connection between selection performance and walking.
Several studies show the multitasking characteristics of specific working contexts. Wittenberg
(2005) illustrates the cognitive demands on mobile workers in automation and industrial
contexts. Here, maintenance and monitoring tasks require the simultaneous handling of
different processing and production facilities with PSs. Oulasvirta & Sumari (2007) also
examine managing multiple PSs in mobile working contexts. According to them the most
salient problems are:
· The physical effort required by various management tasks;
· Anticipating what data or function will be needed;
· Aligning these efforts with work, mobility, and social situations.
Participants in their study had to handle a smart phone, a laptop, a mobile phone and various
necessary accessories such as docking stations, chargers, headsets, cables, etc. The authors
show that having to synchronise different PSs requires careful cognitive effort. Therefore
users often prefer to use only one device. These results suggest that there may be value in
designing mobile devices that facilitate multitasking behaviour for mobile workers. Future
PSs may be sensitive devices such as so-called workload managers or peripheral displays
(Bruno, 2005), which facilitate synchronisation and the use of different working areas.
Apart from the effects of multiple tasking, the design of PSs’ menus and similar applications
may contribute to a user’s cognitive load as well. For example, Beier (2004) recommends that
basic applications be accessible with very few clicks. Zhu et al. (2002) refer to this type of
requirement as well. They claim that proper categorisation, fewer key-press actions, and better
visualisation can ease the use of wireless computing. Ziefle et al. (2006) show that a user’s
mental representation of how a technical device might be structured clearly affects
performance outcomes and may lead to disorientation within the menu. As seen in the section
on the effects of visual interface design, screen size may affect cognitive load as well. In this
context, Jøssund (2006) states that small screens should have shallow navigational hierarchies
in order to offer overview and transparent navigation.
2.5 Effects of Ageing
While examining the design of mobile phones for older users, Pattison & Stedmon (2006)
demonstrated that there are several ergonomic implications for the elderly. They describe the
effects of ageing on vision, hearing and motor function, which influence the interaction with
PSs and lead to special requirements for this user group. According to the authors, older
people require more light than younger ones to see the same level of detail. Most displays are
too small for the elderly. They also have difficulties with glare. As information processing
and long-term memory decline with age, a disproportionate increase in cognitive load caused
by multi-functional PSs could be expected in older users.
As a result, older users encounter a number of problems when interacting with PSs.
Aschersleben & Müsseler (2007) point out that task interference in dual-task situations is
especially critical for the elderly. Finally, Chittaro & De Marco (2004) show that this is
particularly crucial in driving tasks. Their findings prove that older drivers take longer to
respond to warnings on head-up-displays, to read maps in a simulator, to read maps on the
road and generally make more mistakes. In general, driving in “normal” conditions already
imposes a larger cognitive load on older drivers than on younger ones.
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2.6 Discussion and Conclusions
The preceding sections have given an overview of literature dealing with ergonomic risk
factors arising from the use of PSs. Ergonomic risk factors have been described in detail, and
recommendations or – sometimes tentative – guidelines derived, to be followed if adverse
health effects or the risk of accidents are to be avoided.
In fact, the number of relevant articles was relatively small and only few studies were
specifically concerned with biomechanical issues with a particular focus on PSs. This is also
true for environmental risk factors such as noise, vibration or low levels of ambient light. And
finally, no remarks on gender issues could be found in the articles selected. In most cases, the
studies deal with the examination of a certain PS device in use for mobile work. For this
reason and due to the scarce statistical data on the duration and extent of PS use in an
occupational environment (chapter II), research findings remain scattered. Therefore, further
research needs to be conducted to piece the puzzle together and to obtain a full picture.
But how could the difficulties of avoiding any unpredictable ergonomic pitfalls in all the
possible scenarios be overcome? How could general measures be taken to solve the problem
that PS devices often have to be tailored for specific tasks and the user population in terms of,
for example, ICT skills, age and gender?
As mentioned in the conclusions to chapter II and the section “Effects of biomechanical
workload”, a distinction between different professional categories or groups of workers seems
advisable. In addition to the different work environments of mobile eWorkers, these
categories allow for a differentiation in the intensity of PS use and of ICT skills in most cases.
Since the duration and intensity of PS use are crucial factors for biomechanical workload, the
workflow must be analysed (chapter III.1.1 on Psychosocial Resources and Risk Factors). Of
course, while differences in the various professional categories affect the total amount of
biomechanical and cognitive workload, they may also be helpful in determining the resources
that help users to cope with that workload.
Given the above, account should be taken of the likely development of technologies in the
future. As mentioned in chapter II, this development will probably lead to PSs designed for
communication tasks. Because of their smaller size and weight in comparison to those
designed for computing tasks, they are likely to reduce biomechanical load and be more
appropriate for supporting mobile work. It is also becoming apparent that there is a need for
user-centred design of mobile devices which limit the cognitive load for mobile workers.
Future PSs should, for example, facilitate multitasking behaviour. If computing tasks could
then be run on servers that are connected to those PSs via Internet or other networks, PSs
designed for computing tasks would no longer be needed. Therefore, the focus of research
activities in the field of work-related adverse health effects and accidents due to occupational
use of PSs on the move should be put on design criteria for PSs for communication purposes.
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IV Implications for the Management of OSH
In this section implications for the management of OSH for mobile IT-supported work are
investigated. The information collected in chapters II and III is analysed in terms of the
challenges that these and future developments pose to enterprises’ management of OSH.
The main problems and difficulties in applying “traditional” approaches to OSH management
to mobile IT-supported work are described, and possible solutions are illustrated.
Additionally, some consideration is given to whether the use of mobile communication and
computing devices leads to mobile workers being left out of collective agreements.
1. Difficulties in applying “traditional” approaches to OSH management
The Framework Directive on the introduction of measures to improve the safety and health of
workers at work (89/391/EEC) provides the basis for all an employer’s OSH activities. The
Directive is applicable to all sectors of activity, both public and private (Art. 2,1) with the
exception of certain specific public service activities, such as the armed forces and the police,
or to certain specific activities in the civil protection services (Art. 2,2). Thus, the Framework
Directive is applicable to all kinds of mobile IT-supported work covered by Art. 2,1.
In addition to general provisions on OSH, the Directive gives the employer certain specific
obligations regarding the management of safety and health at work as a process, e.g.:
· Prevention of occupational risks and provision of information and training, as well as
provision of the necessary organization and means (Art. 6,1);
· Responding to changing circumstances and aiming to improve existing situations (Art.
6,1);
· The duty to ensure the safety and health of workers in every aspect related to their work
(Art. 5,1);
· Observing the following general principles of prevention: (a) avoiding risks; (b)
evaluating the risks which cannot be avoided: (c) combating the risks at source (Art.
6,2).
On the one hand, these and other obligations are general enough to be applicable to the
management of OSH for all kinds of work with respect to Art. 2,1. On the other hand, they are
too general to provide specific measures and directives for the management of OSH for
mobile IT-supported work. To apply the general OSH provisions of the Directive to specific
work settings, the following key questions need to be answered:
i. Which are the domains of mobile IT-supported work that bear the highest risks for the
employee’s health at work?
ii. Which of these domains could be subject to the employer’s OSH management, and how?
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The answer to question (i) can be derived from the results of chapters II and III. The
following domains bear the main risks:
Table 11: High-risk domains in mobile IT-supported work
Domain
Risks
Task
Inv.
Technology
Miniaturisation of devices
1
New technologies (e.g. e-paper, wearable computers)
1
Poor visual interfaces
2a
*
Repetitive movements
2a
*
Work environment
Excessive noise levels
2a
Static and poor posture
2a
Cognitive overload
2a
Multitude of work-settings
1
Soaring mobility and micro-mobility
1
Work organisation
Increasing work-load
2b
*
Longer working hours
2b
*
Communication barriers
2b
*
Reduced access to information
2b
*
Permanent reachability
2b
*
Difficulties in leadership
2b
*
Working individual Dual use of devices (work, private)
1
*
Increased autonomy
2b
*
Necessity for self-management
2b
*
Lack of social support
2b
*
In order to answer question (ii), it is important to note that some of these domains contain
variable factors. However, only those factors which remain constant in different aspects of
work, so called invariants, can serve as the basis for OSH measures. For example, OSH
measures aimed at designing, and probably regulating, the work place are not feasible within
the context of mobile IT-supported work, since the workplace is variable (Kohn, 2008).
Difficulties in applying traditional approaches to OSH management may arise for three
reasons:
Firstly, only those factors in table 11 that are considered invariant (marked with an asterisk *)
may be subject to OSH management. A variable, i.e. unpredictably changing, factor may not
be managed by static directives. For factors which are variable under mobile IT-supported
work and cannot be managed company-wide, e.g. the work environment, it is only possible to
give guidelines and training to the employees on appropriate individual behaviour in certain
situations.
Secondly, variable factors may not be subject to OSH management because of their lack of
controllability. In general, the intended effect of each measure of any management discipline
is guaranteed only to the extent to which it can be controlled and monitored. In the case of
mobile IT-supported work, it would not be possible to effectively measure and monitor any
OSH measure that addressed a variable factor, e.g. place and time of work, or intrusion of
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work into private life. Since many of the traditional approaches to OSH management do
address the factors and domains that are variable under mobile IT-supported work, problems
with these approaches are inevitable.
Thirdly, as table 11 also indicates, most of the factors which are invariant and thus
susceptible to OSH management are within the domains of organisation and processes (see
also Kohn, 2006).
A glance at the OSH Framework Directive 89/391/EEC, which lists many issues from these
domains (see table 12 for examples) supports this observation. Difficulties in traditional OSH
management may arise from the traditional separation of sub-organisations within a company:
The OSH department usually does not deal with process management. The process
management department is primarily concerned with process efficiency and not good working
conditions, and the human resources department, which is responsible for education and
training, has little knowledge of every-day work processes and their specific impact on
employees’ health.
Table 12: Domains of some OSH Framework Directive issues
Issue
Article
Domain
Provision of information and training
6.1
Process
Design of work places
6.2 d)
Organisation
Choice of work equipment
6.2 d)
Technology
Choice of working and production methods
6.2 d)
Processes
alleviating monotonous work
6.2 d)
Processes
alleviating work at a predetermined work-rate
6.2 d)
Processes
adapting to technical progress
6.2 e)
Technology
appropriate instructions
6.2 i)
Processes
2. Exclusion from collective agreements due to mobility
Collective agreements between employers and their employees are an additional tool for
managing invariant concepts of work within an organisation for domains in which existing
directives and regulations:
· do not exist or are not applicable,
· need to be rendered more precisely.
For mobile IT-supported work, the most common issues subject to OSH management by
collective agreement are:
· the amount of working time,
· access to the organisation’s flow of information,
· inclusion in the organisational work flow.
The advantages of collective agreements as a tool for OSH management are their
individuality, flexibility, and their independence of existing directives. With collective
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agreements, aspects of mobile IT-supported work which are not covered by any directives can
be made accessible to OSH management.
The disadvantage of collective agreements is the potential exclusion of mobile employees due
to the insufficient controllability of such agreements in their case and the lack of clearly
defined responsibilities. A collective agreement on working time that works well within the
organisation is difficult to monitor for mobile workers, since there is no mechanism for
monitoring the specified working time for employees working outside the organisation.
Especially if the leadership model for these employees is based on management by objectives,
employees often tend to work overtime if the objectives have not been appropriately chosen.
In this case, the mobile employees are effectively excluded from this collective agreement.
Closely related to the unenforceability of collective agreements is the lack of clearly defined
responsibilities. If a collective agreement on, for instance, working time specifies that the
employer is responsible for compliance, the problem of monitoring would apply. If, on the
other hand, the employee is considered responsible, the obligation to provide appropriate
measures for OSH would be transferred from the employer to the employee.
Neither problem can be solved by implementing additional regulations, directives or
agreements. Instead, the solution may lie with an appropriate corporate culture with a
special focus on prevention.
3. Consequences and recommendations for practical OSH management
Due to its complexity, mobile IT-supported work needs holistic, and probably new, methods
of practical OSH management by the employer. Though far from comprehensive, the
following consequences and resulting recommendations may be viewed as a first approach.
· A company’s OSH management cannot manage all aspects of mobile IT-supported work
in detail, since there are factors which are highly variable, and thus simply not
manageable. As a consequence, the employer should:
o identify all relevant invariant aspects of mobile IT-work (e.g. devices, work-load,
communication structures) and establish appropriate measures based on the
relevant OSH Directives, scientific research results, and examples of good
practice;
o identify all relevant variable aspects of mobile IT-work (e.g. changing work-
settings, individual thresholds for cognitive and information overload, individual
preferences on work-life balance) and give guidelines and/or training to the
employer on appropriate individual behaviour based on scientific research results
and examples of good practice.
· Due to the complexity and multidimensionality of mobile IT-supported work an effective
OSH management within a company must deal with domains that are beyond the
traditional framework of OSH. Many issues are located within the domains of other
“managements” within the company, e.g. process management, human resources
management, health care management, quality management, or financial management.
Traditionally, each of these domains is represented by a specialised department, with well-
defined internal organisational boundaries. Thus, the employer should:
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o dissolve internal boundaries between those sub-organisations that in any way
contribute to the design of work and work processes;
o encourage cooperation between these units in order to holistically establish healthy
working conditions for the employees.
· Many OSH aspects of mobile IT-supported work may not be manageable or controllable
but have to be incorporated into a living culture, e.g. trust in, and appreciation of, the
employees. The employer should therefore:
o strive to establish a corporate OSH culture;
o establish human needs as one of its core values.
· OSH management for mobile IT-supported work has to be done holistically. However,
due to the complexity of this form of work OSH management cannot be established as a
whole in a single step. Instead,
o the implementation of OSH management for mobile IT-supported work should be
carried out in a process of several successive steps:
- prioritisation of domains and factors based on their impact on safety and health,
- selection of the most crucial factors,
- (re)design of the corresponding measures for OSH.
When these measures have been implemented, the process continues into its next cycle with a
repetition of the prioritisation and selection steps.
· In mobile IT-supported work the employee has influence on more aspects of work than in
“traditional” forms of work. Employers should take this into account in their OSH
management by:
o building awareness on the part of the employees of OSH aspects in their own
concerns;
o enabling the employees to make responsible use of their potential, e.g. by giving
them appropriate and individual training.
4. Conclusions
Mobile IT-supported work is considered hard to design and regulate for occupational safety
and healthy aspects. This is due to the fact that many aspects of work which are invariant in
traditional work settings become variable within mobile IT-supported work. OSH principles
and measures which are based on such factors thus are no longer applicable within this new
form of work. In this way, mobile IT-supported work confronts corporate OSH management
with new challenges. Many of the factors relevant for OSH in mobile IT-supported work are
located within the domains organisation and processes. OSH management, therefore, must
depart from its traditional approach of observing statutory restrictions and regulations for
safety at work. Instead it should facilitate a holistic approach in cooperation with other
organisational management disciplines. This seems to be the key factor in successfully
enabling occupational safety and health in mobile IT-supported work and thus protecting the
individual’s health.
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V Implications for regulation and enforcement
Summary
The questions to be answered in this part of the report concern the main challenges for
legislation and enforcement arising from the increasing use of portable computing and
communication devices and systems.
The existing European legislation was analysed against the background of the new
requirements arising in practice.
Several options for adapting the legislation and alternative solutions for coping with new and
future developments in this field are presented and discussed.
The main questions to be answered are:
· What are the new challenges presented by the growth in work with portable computing
and communication devices?
· To what extent is current OSH legislation able to ensure proper control of the risks?
· What are the options for legislation and enforcement to cope with the demands posed by
work with portable devices?
1. Challenges and possible approaches for legislation and enforcement
On the basis of the results from chapter II “Overview of the technology and its use”, chapter
III “Assessment of the OSH risks” and chapter IV “Implications for the Management of
OSH”, the main challenges are:
· Blurred boundaries between private and occupational use in terms of systems/devices and
time;
· Employer’s limited control of field work;
· Relative autonomy of field workers;
· Adaptation of prevention obligations to the accelerated pace of technical progress.
General solutions for regulation to be considered are:
· Changing/extending of existing obligations; concerns of the employer, concerns of the
employee.
· Binding obligations and/or recommendations.
· Are innovative approaches possible?
General approaches the authorities might follow are:
· Extending inspection to include work that involves the use of portable devices.
· Focussing on monitoring OSH management.
· More advice for employers and employees.
This short overview of the critical questions serves as a starting point for the analyses and the
development of options presented in the following chapters.
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The European Framework Directive on safety and health at work and its relevant daughter
directives: their application to work with portable computing and communication
devices.
Is the technology of portable ICT devices covered?
Are the risks adequately incorporated?
Are the requirements for OSH management considered?
1.1 OSH Framework Directive 89/391/EEC
The OSH Framework Directive “contains general principles concerning the prevention of
occupational risks, the protection of safety and health, the elimination of risk and accident
factors, the informing, consultation, balanced participation in accordance with national laws
and/or practices and training of workers and their representatives, as well as general
guidelines for the implementation of the said principles.” (Articles 1, 2)
This means that the OSH Framework Directive formulates the basic requirements for work
with portable ICT devices in every respect, as the following citations from the Directive will
demonstrate. Statements of particular relevance to work with portable ICT devices are
emphasized in bold by the author:
Art. 5, 1. The employer shall have a duty to ensure the safety and health of workers in every
aspect related to the work.
Art. 6, 1. … the employer shall take the measures necessary for the safety and health
protection of workers, including prevention of occupational risks and provision of
information and training, as well as provision of the necessary organization and means.
The employer shall be alert to the need to adjust these measures to take account of
changing circumstances and aim to improve existing situations.
Art. 6, 2. The employer shall implement the measures … on the basis of the following general
principles of prevention:
(a) avoiding risks;
(b) evaluating the risks which cannot be avoided;
(c) combating the risks at source;
(d) adapting the work to the individual, especially as regards the design of work places, the
choice of work equipment and the choice of working and production methods, with a view,
in particular, to alleviating monotonous work and work at a predetermined work-rate and to
reducing their effect on health.
(e) adapting to technical progress;
(f) replacing the dangerous by the non-dangerous or the less dangerous;
(g) developing a coherent overall prevention policy which covers technology, organization
of work, working conditions, social relationships and the influence of factors related to the
working environment;
(h) giving collective protective measures priority over individual protective measures;
(i) giving appropriate instructions to the workers.
Art. 6, 3. …, the employer shall, taking into account the nature of the activities of the
enterprise and/or establishment:
86
(a) evaluate the risks to the safety and health of workers, inter alia in the choice of work
equipment, … and the fitting-out of work places.
Application of the above requirements and obligations to the responsibilities of employers
concerning work with portable ICT devices
The employer shall have a duty to ensure the
The employer is fully responsible.
safety and health of workers in every aspect
No exception for any kind of work or
related to the work
workplace.
provision of the necessary organization and
OSH management must also be organized in a
means
manner which fulfils the implicit requirements
for work with portable devices.
The employer shall be alert to the need to adjust OSH measures must also comply with the
these measures to take account of changing
changing circumstances of mobile work
circumstances
The employer shall implement the measures … on
the basis of the following general principles of
prevention
(b) evaluating the risks which cannot be avoided; Mobile workers will inevitably encounter risks.
The employer must evaluate these risks
(d) adapting the work to the individual … the
Work must be adapted to the typically unique
choice of work equipment … the choice of
working conditions, including by means of
working … methods
appropriate portable ICT devices and their use
(e) adapting to technical progress;
The rapid pace of ongoing developments in
portable ICT technology must be given timely
consideration and anticipated before new
problems and risks arise
(g) developing a coherent overall prevention
Work with portable devices, typically
policy which covers technology, organization of extramural and during business travel, requires
work, working conditions, social relationships
companies to have a coherent overall
and the influence of factors related to the working prevention policy adapted to this kind of work.
environment;
(i) giving appropriate instructions to the workers Work with portable devices requires special
training and instruction of the workers in order
for awareness of health and safety risks to be
increased, for the risks to be managed, and also
for the devices and tools to be used correctly
and without stress
…, the employer shall, taking into account the
The employer must have access to an
nature of the activities of the enterprise …
evaluation which takes into account the nature
(a) evaluate the risks to the safety and health of of portable ICT devices and the activities in
workers
which they are used
It is clear that the OSH Framework Directive covers all risks and all forms of work, and that it
addresses the full breadth of obligations upon the employer. The requirements are applicable
to all specific aspects of work with portable devices. From this point of view, the OSH
regulations are comprehensive.
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1.2 Possibly relevant EU regulatory framework
Directive 90/270/EEC (work with display screen equipment) seems to rule itself out,
since:
“This Directive shall not apply to: … (d) 'portable' systems not in prolonged use at a
workstation;” (emphasis added by the author)
On the other hand, the following daughter directives may appear at first glance to be
applicable to the specific problems discussed with respect to work with portable ICT devices,
owing to their intended purpose:
Directive 89/655/EEC (use of work equipment by workers at work)
The purpose of this Directive is that of defining minimum requirements for work with
possibly dangerous work equipment such as machines, etc.
Directive 2003/10/EC (on risks arising from physical agents (noise))
“This Directive … lays down minimum requirements for the protection of workers from risks
to their health and safety arising or likely to arise from exposure to noise and in particular
the risk to hearing.” (emphasis added by the author). Risk to hearing posed by noise is not a
typical problem of work with portable ICT devices.
Directive 90/269/EEC (manual handling of loads where there is a risk particularly of
back injury to workers)
The purpose of this Directive is that of preventing back injuries to workers caused by the
manual handling of loads. Heavy loads are meant in this context and could be taken into
account only if a worker were to use a workstation computer as a portable ICT device.
Directive 2003/88/EC concerning certain aspects of the organisation of working time
“This Directive applies to:
(a) minimum periods of daily rest, weekly rest and annual leave, to breaks and maximum
weekly working time; and (b) certain aspects of night work, shift work and patterns of work.”
The Directive is in principle applicable to specific problems of work with portable devices
arising for example from long working hours during journeys and from ”mobile work”, which
is explicitly addressed in the Directive’s articles 2, 7 and 20. This means that employers must
pay special attention to the requirements of this Directive with respect to “adequate rest” for
their mobile workers.
However, after consideration of the details of the above directives, they appear – with the
exception of the general requirements for the organisation of working time – inapplicable to
the specific problems of work with portable ICT devices.
1.3 Directive 90/270/EEC (work with display screen equipment)
This Directive is also known under the title “VDU Directive” (Visual Display Unit Directive).
The VDU Directive was developed in the 1980s, when work with visual display units, for
instance in offices, rose sharply as a “new form of work”. It addressed the new challenges
from a technical, organisational and medical point of view. The creation of a dedicated
directive for this purpose appears to have been the correct decision.
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The VDU Directive is restricted to stationary workplaces, for which its annex, in particular, is
designed. Article 1, 3 states:
“This Directive shall not apply to:
(a) drivers' cabs or control cabs for vehicles or machinery;
(b) computer systems on board a means of transport;
(c) computer systems mainly intended for public use;
(d) 'portable' systems not in prolonged use at a workstation;
(e) calculators, cash registers and any equipment having a small data or measurement
display required for direct use of the equipment;
(f) typewriters of traditional design, of the type known as 'typewriter with window'.”
The conclusion is that work with portable devices is not covered by the VDU Directive.
However, if the details of this Directive are considered, one can see that although parts of the
Directive are not legally applicable, they apply in practice to work with portable devices. For
example:
“Article 3
Analysis of workstations
1. Employers shall be obliged to perform an analysis of workstations in order to evaluate the
safety and health conditions to which they give rise for their workers, particularly as regards
possible risks to eyesight, physical problems and problems of mental stress.
2. Employers shall take appropriate measures to remedy the risks found, on the basis of the
evaluation referred to in paragraph 1, taking account of the additional and/or combined
effects of the risks so found.”
“Article 6
Information for, and training of, workers
1. Without prejudice to Article 10 of Directive 89/391/EEC, workers shall receive information
on all aspects of safety and health relating to their workstation, in particular information on
such measures applicable to workstations as are implemented under
Articles 3, 7 and 9.
In all cases, workers or their representatives shall be informed of any health and safety
measure taken in compliance with this Directive.
2. Without prejudice to Article 12 of Directive 89/391/EEC, every worker shall also receive
training in use of the workstation before commencing this type of work and whenever the
organization of the workstation is substantially modified.”
“Article 8
Worker consultation and participation
Consultation and participation of workers and/or their representatives shall take place in
accordance with Article 11 of Directive 89/391/EEC on the matters covered by this Directive,
including its Annex.
Article 9
Protection of workers' eyes and eyesight
1. Workers shall be entitled to an appropriate eye and eyesight test carried out by a person
with the necessary capabilities:
- before commencing display screen work,
- at regular intervals thereafter, and
- if they experience visual difficulties which may be due to display screen work.
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2. Workers shall be entitled to an ophthalmological examination if the results of the test
referred to in paragraph 1 show that this is necessary.
3. If the results of the test referred to in paragraph 1 or of the examination referred to in
paragraph 2 show that it is necessary and if normal corrective appliances cannot be used,
workers must be provided with special corrective appliances appropriate for the work
concerned.
4. Measures taken pursuant to this Article may in no circumstances involve workers in
additional financial cost.
5. Protection of workers' eyes and eyesight may be provided as part of a national health
system.”
If we consider the annex of the VDU Directive as containing the “minimum requirements”, it
also applies in part to portable devices:
1. Equipment
Applicability of the
requirements from the VDU
Directive to work with
portable devices
Applicable
(a) General comment
The use as such of the equipment must not be a source of risk for
workers.
Applicable
(b) Display screen
The characters on the screen shall be well-defined and
clearly formed, of adequate size and with adequate spacing
between the characters and lines.
The image on the screen should be stable, with no flickering or
Applicable
other forms of instability.
The brightness and/or the contrast between the characters and the Applicable
background shall be easily adjustable by the operator, and also be
easily adjustable to ambient conditions.
The screen must swivel and tilt easily and freely to suit the needs Applicable
of the operator.
It shall be possible to use a separate base for the screen or an
Not applicable
adjustable table.
The screen shall be free of reflective glare and reflections liable to Applicable
cause discomfort to the user.
(c) Keyboard
The keyboard shall be tiltable and separate from the screen so as
to allow the worker to find a comfortable working position
Partly applicable
avoiding fatigue in the arms or hands.
Notebooks with detachable
keyboards are available
The space in front of the keyboard shall be sufficient to provide
Partly applicable*
support for the hands and arms of the operator.
The keyboard shall have a matt surface to avoid reflective glare. Applicable
The arrangement of the keyboard and the characteristics of the
Applicable
keys shall be such as to facilitate the use of the keyboard.
The symbols on the keys shall be adequately contrasted and legible Applicable
from the design working position.
90
(d) Work desk or work surface
Partly applicable*
The work desk or work surface shall have a sufficiently large, low-
reflectance surface and allow a flexible arrangement of the screen,
keyboard, documents and related equipment.
The document holder shall be stable and adjustable and shall be
positioned so as to minimize the need for uncomfortable head and
eye movements.
There shall be adequate space for workers to find a comfortable
position.
(e) Work chair
Partly applicable*
The work chair shall be stable and allow the operator easy
freedom of movement and a comfortable position.
The seat shall be adjustable in height.
The seat back shall be adjustable in both height and tilt.
A footrest shall be made available to any one who wishes for one.
2. Environment
(a) Space requirements
Partly applicable*
The workstation shall be dimensioned and designed so as to
provide sufficient space for the user to change position and vary
movements.
(b) Lighting
Partly applicable *
Room lighting and/or spot lighting (work lamps) shall ensure
comparable working
satisfactory lighting conditions and an appropriate contrast
conditions may be sought
between the screen and the background environment, taking into
account the type of work and the user's vision requirements.
Possible disturbing glare and reflections on the screen or other
equipment shall be prevented by coordinating workplace and
workstation layout with the positioning and technical
characteristics of the artificial light sources.
(c) Reflections and glare
Partly applicable *
Workstations shall be so designed that sources of light, such as
comparable working
windows and other openings, transparent or translucid walls, and conditions may be sought
brightly coloured fixtures or walls cause no direct glare and, as
far as possible, no reflections on the screen.
Windows shall be fitted with a suitable system of adjustable
covering to attenuate the daylight that falls on the workstation.
(d) Noise
Partly applicable *
Noise emitted by equipment belonging to workstation(s) shall be
taken into account when a workstation is being equipped, in
particular so as not to distract attention or disturb speech.
(e) Heat
Partly applicable *
Equipment belonging to workstation(s) shall not produce excess
heat which could cause discomfort to workers.
F )Radiation
Partly applicable *
All radiation with the exception of the visible part of the
electromagnetic spectrum shall be reduced to negligible levels
from the point of view of the protection of workers' safety and
health.
(g) Humidity
Partly applicable*
An adequate level of humidity shall be established and maintained.
91
3. Operator/computer interface
In designing, selecting, commissioning and modifying software,
and in designing tasks using display screen equipment, the
employer shall take into account the following principles:
(a) software must be suitable for the task;
(b) software must be easy to use and, where appropriate,
adaptable to the operator’s level of knowledge or experience; no Applicable
quantitative or qualitative checking facility may be used without
the knowledge of the workers;
c) systems must provide feedback to workers on their performance;
(d) systems must display information in a format and at a pace
which are adapted to operators;
(e) the principles of software ergonomics must be applied, in
particular to human data processing.
* Workplaces designed for work with portable systems are already or can be made available e.g. at railway stations and
airports.
All the above quotations show implementations of the Framework Directive for work with
visual display units. The employer can use also the VDU Directive as a guideline for state-of-
the-art application of the Framework Directive for work with portable devices with display
unit. This also includes the obligations for protection of workers' eyes and eyesight in Article
9 of the VDU Directive to comply with article 14 of the Framework Directive.
It should be mentioned that in at least two member states, the legal implementation of the
VDU Directive does not exclude work with portable devices used externally to workplaces.
The UK excludes only “portable systems not in prolonged use”. This means that portable
systems used for long periods of time are included even if they are used externally (not at
workplace). Estonia excludes only “working short-term with laptop computers”.
In order to answer the question of whether the VDU Directive, a new directive or some
alternative solution would be the most appropriate approach to dealing with OSH problems
arising from work with portable ICT devices it is important to find out which requirements
necessary for work with portable ICT devices are missing from the relevant existing
legislation.
The relevant legislation does not contain concrete requirements for certain specific aspects of
work with portable devices, e.g.:
· ergonomic features of portable devices and systems;
· regulation of what are appropriate circumstances for extramural work with portable
systems;
· requirements for the technical and personal support of employees who work with portable
systems;
· requirements for training and qualification in order to raise workers’ awareness and
competence, to enable them to cope with health risks arising from work with portable
systems;
· obligations for the protection of the eyes and eyesight of employees working with portable
devices.
With the exception of the last point, i.e. examination of the eyes and eyesight, for example by
an ophthalmological examination offered by the employer, all specific aspects mentioned
above are difficult to regulate by concrete binding requirements. Instead, a need exists for
92
flexible solutions on the basis of a culture of prevention and personal competence on the part
of the employer, and for technical and ergonomic standards for portable systems to be made
available for occupational use by the suppliers. Good examples are the German GS label
(“certified safety”) and the private TCO standard governing CRT monitors for stationary
workplaces.
2. Options for legislation and enforcement
Based on the analysis in chapter II, several options for the adaptation of regulation and
enforcement to work with portable systems can be developed.
The options for legislative action are:
i. A new directive for work with portable systems.
In order to be an effective tool for setting OSH standards, this Directive (“Directive on the
minimum safety and health requirements for work with portable computing and
communication systems and devices”) would have to cover all aspects of work with portable
systems: the technical and ergonomic requirements for the portable systems, the requirements
for the working environment, work behaviour and work organisation, training and
qualification etc. Whether this Directive would be flexible enough to adjust to the growing
pace of technological development, to cope with different aspects of mobile work with ICT
systems, and to cover the diverse criteria of small enterprises and big companies remains
questionable.
ii. Extending and updating the VDU Directive for work with portable systems.
As shown in chapter I, the requirements of the VDU Directive are also applicable to work
with portable systems. Only the annex is specifically designed for VDU workstations. It
appears feasible to establish a second annex to the VDU Directive for portable systems. This
would, however, give rise to the same problems as mentioned above under point (i), were it to
be necessary for the requirements for portable systems and work with them to be formulated
with sufficient flexibility and detail. This solution would, however, have the attractive feature
of being an adaptation of an existing directive, one which is widely known and accepted, to
new developments in the area of work with VDU systems. Should this option be selected, the
requirements in the new annex should be limited to certain principles, focussing upon
requirements for the equipment and the devices, whereas working practices should be
referenced to management practices in the form of best-practice examples.
This option appears to be preferred by some OSH experts, as the discussion at the workshop
and communication from (for example) Finland (FIOH) show.
iii. Creation of new legal instruments or updating of an existing one (other than the VDU
Directive).
As shown above, all aspects of work with portable ICT systems are covered by the principles
formulated in the OSH Framework Directive. Nevertheless, most of the VDU Directive
requirements may be used only as guidelines of good practice for working with VDUs in
general and could not be applied as binding regulations for all workers and sectors involved.
93
In cases (ii) and (iii), there is a need for guidelines for work with portable systems. Such
guidelines should contain:
· Technical “standards” for portable systems for professional use;
· Practical solutions for risk assessment and good practice for work with portable ICT
systems, including training and qualification, support and work organisation;
· Recommendations, in particular for small enterprises without a specialized organisational
background;
· Recommendations for corporate prevention culture including collective agreements.
Due to the restricted capacity to influence the technological development and use of portable
ICT systems, the guidelines should concern not only employers, but also several other target
groups:
· Employees;
· Suppliers of portable devices and systems;
· Suppliers of services (transportation, accommodation, support).
Enforcement
Irrespective of the option chosen, enforcement of legal measures would pose problems due to
the fact that effective monitoring of work performed with portable systems is complicated.
The labour inspectorates should pay more attention to monitoring and enforcement activities
relating to OSH management of work with portable systems (e.g. the selection of appropriate
systems, risk assessment, adapted organization of prevention). This, however, would be more
effective in large companies. Small and medium enterprises without a specialized OSH
section could be reached by information campaigns in cooperation with their sectoral
organizations.
Besides monitoring and enforcement, labour inspectorates should contribute to the
dissemination of guidelines and provide advice to employers.
To meet these demands, labour inspectorates should increase their own competence in the
field of working with portable systems and intensify cooperation, for example, with sectoral
organisations, in order to provide the employers and employees with adequate information
and advice.
94
VI Discussion
The study shows that the occupational use of portable computing and communication devices
continues to grow in terms of the number of users, occupational fields and activities, and the
speed of technological advance.
A special problem here is the fact that the driving force behind the development of such
devices and systems and the associated communication services is not usually occupational
use but use outside work.
The needs of occupational use can only find expression in actual technology if users articulate
their needs. However, in view of the pace of technological advance, users often have little
understanding, beyond their own immediate experience, of the ergonomics and other health
aspects of working with portable devices. Consequently, they find it difficult to tell
manufacturers exactly what they want.
These needs could be formulated by OSH experts and laid down in regulations or guidelines
and exercise influence in the form of “standards”. The VDU Directive has so far performed
this function well for stationary VDU workstations. However, in view of the rapid
developments in technology and applications, we have to ask whether the best approach here
really is relatively inflexible legislation or rather guidelines adapted to ongoing development
and with detailed instructions for specific fields of application.
Nevertheless, it must be said that a number of basic requirements relating to VDUs from the
VDU Directive are still absolutely applicable to mobile devices and are also realistic for
portable devices. These requirements, e.g. relating to the depiction of characters on displays
or the reflective properties of VDUs, do not lose their relevance for healthy ergonomics even
if these facts are ignored by many new technical developments, such as the shiny surfaces of
notebook screens. In any case, any new guidelines should explicitly refer to the requirements
of the VDU Directive.
The analysis of the risks shows that these can only be assessed and addressed if the devices,
the type and intensity of their use, and all the other conditions associated with their use
(working environment, work organization, employee skill levels etc.) are given appropriate
overall consideration.
We have tried to demonstrate that the specific health risks are varied and far-reaching but
have a single common point of origin – working on location with portable computing and
communication devices. It is often argued that the conditions in which work on location takes
place are not monitored by the employer. The fact is, however, that it is precisely this
technology that is increasing the degree to which employee performance, working location
and work methods are monitored. If this is the case, it must then also be possible to protect
employee health with the aid of this technology. In addition, it is crucial in this context that
mobile employees have sufficient knowledge of the possible risks to their health and of the
possible remedies. The employer can and must inform his employees accordingly. The study
shows that even today basic recommendations can already be made for the protection of
health from the ergonomic and psychosocial risks of working with portable computing and
communication devices.
95
All the same, there is still too little knowledge available from specific and representative
studies. The latter are essential for the drafting of evidence-based guidelines for specific tasks.
Whereas the requirements relating to these devices are still relatively invariant and can be
defined accordingly, work activities with portable devices are hardly amenable to
standardization because they take place at locations of a varied nature and are subject to
changing external conditions largely beyond the control of both employer and employee.
On the other hand, these conditions depend to a certain extent on the type of activity, e.g. the
use of notebooks by support technicians, of input devices in logistics and of displays in
vehicles. The study contains a very extensive overview of current fields of application. For
these various fields of application it is possible to issue more or less specific
recommendations and principles for the use of portable devices.
What is essential is that companies whose employees use portable computing and
communication devices on location make a point of familiarizing themselves with the health
aspects of this work and organize the work and health protection measures accordingly.
Guidelines must be made available to them for this.
In practice, OSH managers cannot themselves monitor activities with portable devices, but
must concentrate instead on organizing work and health protection.
In doing so, they can refer on the one hand to the OSH Framework Directive, while at the
same time working with guidelines containing the evidence-based state of science and
technology in terms of risks and remedies.
They should participate in the development and dissemination of guidelines and, in this way,
acquire the necessary expertise themselves and develop new methods for the indirect
monitoring of OSH by focusing their attention on in-company processes, organization, skills
and health protection culture.
96
VII Conclusions
1. The occupational use of computing and communications systems is continuing to grow in
terms of:
· The number of users,
· The fields of application and activities
· New technologies.
2. The following terminology is proposed:
· “Mobile IT-supported work”
· “Mobile e-Worker”
This is because these two aspects combined – mobility and the use of portable IT – are the
characteristic features.
3. Since activities in the various fields of application differ greatly in some respects and the
distinction between blue- and white-collar activities is becoming blurred, categorization on
the basis of the characteristics of the particular activity makes more sense for the
identification of risks and taking preventive measures.
4. The health risks due to poor or maladapted ergonomics and psychosocial stress are varied
and considerable. These can be acute dangers (accident risk, e.g. from the use of portable
devices when driving) or the latent risks of chronic physical and mental illness. These are the
result not only of the direct use of the devices but also, and more importantly, of the
circumstances of device use.
The first standards, recommendations and principles can already be defined on the basis of the
existing findings.
5. There is a lack of representative and specific studies on mobile IT-supported work. These
are necessary so that evidence-based guidelines can be drafted and specific, targeted measures
can be defined.
6. The employer can and must shoulder his responsibility for the safety and health of his
mobile e-workers even when they work away from the normal base. OSH management must
therefore be adapted accordingly. This includes risk assessment, the availability of suitable
equipment and systems, technical and personal support, training employees to use the systems
in a healthy way and an adapted health protection culture. Employers, and particularly small
and medium-sized enterprises, as well as manufacturers of devices and providers of IT
services need standards and generally accepted recommendations.
7. The OSH Framework Directive covers all occupational risks including all aspects of mobile
IT-supported work in general. The VDU Directive is not applicable from the legal point of
view, but many of its provisions are applicable in practice to portable devices and particularly
the ergonomic requirements. Serving as the state of the art, these should also form the basis
for possible “standards” for portable devices for occupational use.
8. There are three options for future OSH management:
· A new directive;
· Modification of the VDU Directive and the extension of its scope to cover mobile IT-
supported work;
97
· No new or modified directive, but the drafting of guidelines and “standards”.
The last option would appear to be the best way of satisfying the needs of OSH in the
mobile IT-supported work sector in the light of the speed of technological progress.
9. The most effective way to achieve compliance is for OSH authorities to concentrate on
indirect monitoring by inspecting the way work is organized in companies. They should
participate in the drafting of generally accepted evidence-based OSH management
“standards” and guidelines and in their dissemination.
10. OSH management for mobile IT-supported work should facilitate a holistic approach in
cooperation with other organisational management disciplines. This is the key factor in
successfully enabling occupational safety and health in this new field.
98
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110
List of Photographs
Photograph 1 Person carrying a laptop
p. 18
Photograph 2 A portable laptop table
p. 25
111
List of Figures
Figure 1
Characteristics of portable ICT tools
p. 17
Figure 2
Teleworkers by gender and category of occupation; 2001
p. 19
Figure 3
Use of ICT by sector
p. 20
Figure 4
Locations where mobile eWorkers use Internet while
p. 22
travelling
Figure 5
Individuals who accessed the Internet at their place of work
p. 24
(other than home) in EU27, EU25, EU15, Euro area
Figure 6
Time spent on the move by mobile workers
p. 26
Figure 7
Multilocational eWork and Tele-cooperation (EU15)
p. 27
Figure 8
Enterprises practising different types of eWork in Finland
p. 28
Figure 9
eWork in Europe by type of eWork (in %)
p. 29
Figure 10
Enterprises providing access to their IT systems for
p. 33
employees working part time away from enterprise
premises
Figure 11
Employees working part of their time away from their
p. 34
enterprise premises and accessing the enterprise IT systems
(EU27)
Figure 12
Activities of mobile eWorkers in 2002
p. 35
Figure 13
Extent of out-of-hours contact, by length of average
p. 38
working week, EU27 (%)
Figure 14
Effects of different forms of telework from a study among
p. 50
members of the three groups
Figure 15
Theoretical framework for the consequences of
p. 51
telecommuting
Figure 16
Different forms of control in small and medium-sized
p. 62
enterprises
Figure 17
Answers from mobile ICT users
p. 63
Figure 18
Mental workload, mental strain, and consequences of
p. 75
mental strain according to ISO EN 10 075
112
List of Tables
Table 1
Usual place of work
p. 22
Table 2
Place of use of Internet and mobile access
p. 23
Table 3
Percentage of individuals who accessed Internet at their
p. 23-24
place of work (other than home) in the last 3 months
Table 4
Internet access and access to company’s computer networks
p. 27
in Europe (EU10)
Table 5
Spread of multi-locational work and tele-cooperation in
p.31
BISER regions
Table 6
Access to Internet through selected devices, 2002 (%)
p.32
Table 7
Examples of types of work with portable devices and the
p.37
related typical OSH risks and OSH management problems
Table 8
Assignment of resources and risk factors to forms of work
p.53
load
Table 9
Search engines used for the web search
p.69-70
Table 10
Keywords used for the web search
p.70
Table 11
High-risk domains in mobile IT-supported work
p.80
Table 12
Domains of some OSH Framework Directive issues
p.81
113
List of Abbreviations
AmI
ambient intelligence
ASP
application service provider / providing
BISER
Benchmarking the Information Society: e-Europe
Indicators for European Regions
CNET
www.cnet.com
CPU
Central Processing Unit
CSCW
computer supported collaborative work
DGB
Confederation of German Trade Union
(Deutscher Gewerkschaft Bund)
DGUV
German Statutory Accident Insurance (Die
Deutsche Gesetzliche Unfallversicherung)
EC
European Commission
E-commerce
Electronic commerce
EEC
European Economic Community
EEG
Electroencephalography
EU
European Union
EU10
Cyprus, Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary,
Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Malta, Slovakia,
Slovenia
EU15
European Union (15 countries: Belgium,
Germany, France, Italy, Luxembourg,
Netherlands, Denmark, Ireland, United Kingdom,
Greece, Portugal, Spain, Austria, Finland,
Sweden.)
EU25
European Union (25 countries: Belgium,
Germany, France, Italy, Luxembourg,
Netherlands, Denmark, Ireland, United Kingdom,
Greece, Portugal, Spain, Austria, Finland,
Sweden, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Estonia,
Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Malta,
Slovakia, Slovenia)
EU27
European Union (27 countries: Belgium,
Germany, France, Italy, Luxembourg,
Netherlands, Denmark, Ireland, United Kingdom,
Greece, Portugal, Spain, Austria, Finland,
Sweden, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Estonia,
Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Malta,
114
Slovakia, Slovenia, Bulgaria, Romania.)
EUROSTAT
Directorate-General of the European
Commission, responsible for statistics
Euro zone/Euro area
Austria, Belgium, Cyprus, Finland, France,
Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Slovenia
Luxembourg, Malta, Netherlands, Portugal,
Spain.
FASTAP
the world's smallest keypad, formerly known as
OneTouch
FIOH
Finish Institute of Occupational Health
FIZ-Technik
Fachinformationszentrum Technik; Centre for
Professional Information (free translation)
GB
Gigabyte
GDP
gross domestic product
GPS
Global Positioning System
GVG
Gesellschaft für Versicherungswissenschaft und -
gestaltung
ICT
information and communication technologies
INSP
database of FIZ-Technik
Internet
worldwide, publicly accessible network of
computer networks using the Internet Protocol
(IP)
IT
information technology
IST
Information Society Technologies
LCD
liquid crystal device
MID
mobile Internet device
Mobile eWorker
(physically) mobile worker using ICT
systems with high intensity
MOSAIC
Mobile Worker Support Environments
MS
Member States (of European Union)
OSH
Occupational Safety and Health
PC
personal computer
PDA
personal digital assistant
115
PS
portable (computer) systems
QWERTY
modern-day keyboard layout on English-
language computer and typewriter keyboards
RFID
radio-frequency identification tag
SIBIS
Statistical Indicators Benchmarking the
Information Society
SMEs
small and medium-size enterprises
SoC
System-on-a-chip
SSCT-LCD
Surface-Stanilized Cholesteric Texture LCD
TEMA
database of FIZ-Technik
TFT-LCD
thin-film transistor LCD
TNO
Nederlandse Organisatie voor Toegepast
Natuurwetenschappelijk Onderzoek; Netherlands
Organisation for Applied Scientific Research
UK
United Kingdom
UMPC
ultra-mobile PC
USB
Universal Serial Bus
VGA
Video Graphics Array
VDU Directive
Visual Display Unit Directive
WWW
World Wide Web
ZIGUV
Zentrales Informationssystem der gesetzlichen
Unfallversicherung, Central Information System
of German Statutory Accident Insurance (free
translation)
116
European Commission
The increasing use of portable computing and communication devices and its impact on the
health of EU workers
Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union
2010 — 116 pp. — 21 × 29.7 cm
ISBN 978-92-79-15399-0
doi: 10.2767/29806
This report aims to shed light on the purported effects of portable computing and
communication devices (hereafter called portable IT) on the health and safety of those
workers that may be using them more frequently. In fact it is believed that this trend,
rather than be attenuated, should increase since it is to be expected that, in its various
forms and guises, the use of portable IT will become an unavoidable aspect of ever more
professions/occupations. The various types of health effects due to portable IT use, both
physical and psychological, are covered in the report.
In tackling this challenge the report tries also to characterise patterns of portable IT use
among those occupations where it is supposedly more typical. Thus, types of work,
working patterns, working environments, categories of workers and the possible
disruption to personal life that the portability factor may bring about, are all aspects
covered. A prediction of how will portable IT use evolve and the associated health
problems to be expected is also included.
The public of this report are any interested parties such as employers and employee
organisations and representatives, policy makers, managers and workers as well as
health professionals, all of whom may find in the report interesting and new information
that may help them understand the phenomenon better and make more informed
choices.
Consequently, the report also includes options for management and legislation to try and
compensate for the purported negative health effects of portable IT use.
This publication is available in printed and electronic format in English.
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KE-30-10-325
The increasing use of portable
-EN-C
computing and communication
devices and its impact on the
health of EU workers
Are you interested in the publications of the Directorate-General for Employment,
Social Affairs and Equal Opportunities?
If so, you can download them or take out a free subscription at
http://ec.europa.eu/social/publications
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Social Europe e-newsletter at
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European Commission
Informations
Date : 08/09/2010
Langue : Anglais
Pages : 124
Consultations : 618
Commentaires : 0
Langue : Anglais
Pages : 124
Consultations : 618
Commentaires : 0
| Note : |
Résumé
Editeur : Commission européenne
ISBN : 978-92-79-15399-0
Description : The increasing use of portable computing and communication devices and its impact on the health of EU workers. Ebook publié par la Commission européenne et disponible sur: http://bookshop.europa.eu
Tags : Portables, communications, impacts, santé, employés
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